Background. In the 1400's and 1500's, the Western Hemisphere was home to many groups of Native Americans with many different cultures. In the next 200 years, people from several European countries crossed the Atlantic Ocean to North and South America. Among them were colonists-chiefly British-who settled along the eastern coast of North America from present-day Maine to Georgia. These colonists built up a series of thriving settlements. They lived under British rule for many years. But their dedication to liberty led them to declare independence and form the United States of America in 1776.

Growth and expansion. The American people dedicated their new nation to the principles of democracy, freedom, equality, and opportunity for all. From the start, the United States welcomed immigrants to its shores. Attracted by the opportunity for freedom and a chance for a better life, newcomers from many lands poured into the United States by the millions. Immigration and natural growth have caused the nation's population to mount steadily since its early years. However, not all newcomers came voluntarily, and not all found freedom or equality when they arrived. The slave trade brought millions of people from Africa against their will.

As the population grew, the American people spread out across North America. Wherever they went, these pioneers worked hard to earn a living. They cut down huge expanses of forest and plowed vast stretches of prairie to establish farms. They searched for minerals and other valuable resources, and established towns where they found resources. Cities grew up along the main transportation routes, and business and industry prospered there. America's rapid growth made it one of the largest nations in the world in terms of both size and population. The country's bustling economic activity turned it into a land of enormous wealth.

Today, the United States ranks as the world's leading producer of farm products and manufactured goods, and its people have one of the highest standards of living in the world. The United States also became a leader in many other fields, including science, medicine, technology, military strength, finance, and entertainment.

Challenges and hardships. The United States grew and prospered in spite of many challenges and hardships. At the start, the very survival of the new nation was in doubt. The colonists who founded the United States had to defeat the mighty British Empire in the Revolutionary War in America (1775-1783) to make their claim to independence stick. They succeeded despite great odds against them.

Both the colonists and the pioneers who moved westward across the country faced many dangers, including disease and starvation. The newcomers and the Native Americans-whom the newcomers called Indians-often fought bitter wars when the Indians resisted further expansion into their lands.

In the 1860's-less than 100 years after the Revolution-the survival of the United States was threatened once again. Eleven Southern states withdrew from the Union and tried to establish an independent nation. A war between the North and the South-the tragic, bloody American Civil War (1861-1865)-followed. The North won the war, and the country remained united.

The American ideals of equality and opportunity for all did much to help the United States grow and prosper. Yet the ideals have not always been followed in practice. From colonial times until the end of the Civil War, many African Americans were slaves. In addition, some Americans have suffered from discrimination in jobs and other areas because they were immigrants, or because of their race or religion.

America's economic growth, though amazingly rapid, has not always been smooth. Periodically, severe depressions have brought the economy to a near standstill. At such times, large numbers of Americans lost their jobs and lived in poverty.

In the 1900's, the United States became one of the world's strongest military powers. As such, it took on the role of defending democracy throughout the world. This role led the United States into two world wars and other conflicts. As the 1900's ended, many Americans questioned what the country's role should be in world affairs.

Today, as always, the United States faces many problems. They include the existence of poverty amid great wealth, recurring slumps in the economy, disputes over foreign policy, and pollution of the environment. But Americans retain deep pride in their country and hope to overcome their difficulties as their ancestors did.

This article discusses UNITED STATES, HISTORY OF THE (International cooperation).

The first Americans

For thousands of years, Indians were the only inhabitants of the Western Hemisphere. Most scientists believe they wandered into North America from Asia about 15,000 years ago. They spread across the hemisphere to the tip of South America. Probably about 6,000 years ago, the Inuit-another Asian people-moved to the Western Hemisphere. They soon spread eastward across the Arctic part of North America. They remained only in the far north, near the Arctic Circle (see INUIT).

The Vikings were probably the first white people to reach America. A band of these venturesome seafarers is believed to have explored and temporarily settled part of the east coast of North America about 1,000 years ago. However, the exploration and settlement of America by Europeans did not begin for another 500 years. Then, in 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed westward from Spain, seeking a short sea route to the Orient. He found, instead, a vast New World. Following Columbus's voyage, explorers, soldiers, and settlers from several European countries flocked to America. The process through which white people would take control of the Indian homeland was underway.



Scholars do not know how many Indians lived in North and South America when Columbus reached the New World. Many believe there may have been between about 30 million and 75 million Indians living in all of North and South America, with about 1 million to 5 million of these Indians living in what is now the United States. But some estimates run as high as 118 million for the Americas, with more than 15 million of these in what is now the United States.

The American Indians formed hundreds of tribes, with many different languages and ways of life. Some tribes in the south-including the Aztec, Inca, and Maya-established advanced civilizations. They founded cities that had huge, magnificent buildings. They also accumulated gold, jewels, and other riches. Most American Indians north of Mexico lived in small villages. They hunted game and raised such crops as maize (corn), beans, and squash. Some tribes traveled in search of food and never established permanent settlements.

Some Indian tribes of North America helped the early European settlers survive in the wilderness of the New World. But as the settlers pushed steadily westward, they became a threat to the Indian way of life, and Indians and whites became enemies. For a detailed story of the first Americans, see the World Book article on INDIAN, AMERICAN.

European discovery

The Vikings. About A.D. 1000, Vikings from Greenland explored part of the North American mainland-probably in what is now the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. Led by Leif Ericson, they were probably the first white people to reach the mainland of the continent. But the Vikings did not establish permanent settlements, and their voyages were soon forgotten.

Columbus. Before Columbus's voyage, Europeans did not know the Western Hemisphere existed. During the 1400's, Europeans became interested in finding a short sea route to the Far East-a region of spices and other valuable goods.

Columbus, an Italian navigator, believed he could find a short route to the East by sailing west. Financed by the Spanish king and queen, he set sail westward from Spain on Aug. 3, 1492. Columbus reached land on October 12, and assumed he had arrived in the Far East. Actually, he landed on San Salvador, one of the islands just east of the North American mainland.

Columbus died in 1506. He believed he had sailed to an unknown land in the Far East. Other Europeans called this unexplored area the New World and honored Columbus as its discoverer. Europeans also called the Western Hemisphere America, after Amerigo Vespucci. An Italian, Vespucci claimed he made voyages to the New World for Spain and Portugal beginning in 1497.

Exploration and early settlement

The discovery of the existence of America caused a wave of excitement in Europe. To many Europeans, the New World offered opportunities for wealth, power, and adventure. European rulers and merchants wanted to gain control of the hemisphere's resources in order to add to their wealth. Rulers also sought to gain New World territory, and thus increase their power and importance. Christian clergymen were eager to spread their religion to the Indians. Explorers and others viewed the New World as a place to seek adventure, as well as gain fame and fortune. Before long, Europeans from several countries sailed across the Atlantic to explore America and set up trading posts and colonies.

For details on the early exploration, see EXPLORATION.

The Spanish and Portuguese. During the 1500's, the Spanish and Portuguese spread out over the southern part of the Western Hemisphere in search of gold and other riches. The Spaniards quickly conquered the Inca of Peru, the Maya of Central America, and the Aztec of Mexico. The Portuguese took control of what is now Brazil. By 1600, Spain and Portugal controlled most of the hemisphere from Mexico southward.

Also during the 1500's, Spaniards moved into what is now the Southeastern and Western United States. They did not discover riches there, as they did farther south. But they took control of Florida and of the land west of the Mississippi River. In 1526, the Spanish founded the first European settlement in the present-day United States. Historians believe that this settlement, San Miguel de Gualdape, stood somewhere along the coast of what is now Georgia and South Carolina. It was abandoned in 1527. In 1565, the Spanish founded St. Augustine, Fla., the oldest permanent settlement established by Europeans in what is now the United States. They also founded missions and other settlements in the West and South. See MISSION LIFE IN AMERICA; SPAIN (The Spanish Empire).

The English and French began exploring eastern North America about 1500. At first, both nations sent only explorers and fur traders to the New World. But after 1600, they began establishing permanent settlements there. The French settlements were chiefly in what is now Canada. The English settlements included the 13 colonies that later became the United States.

For many years, Britain and France struggled for control of the land between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mississippi River, and for Canada. Britain finally won out in 1763 when it defeated France in the French and Indian War.

The land that became the United States

The explorers who came to the northern part of the hemisphere did not find gold and other riches, as did the Spanish in the south. Nor did they find large Indian civilizations to help supply their needs. Instead, they found a wilderness sparsely inhabited by Indians.

The first settlers encountered many hardships as they attempted to establish colonies along the eastern coast. They had no way of knowing that beyond their settlements lay a vast and unbelievably rich and varied land. But later, the resources of this new land-its fertile soils, abundant water supplies, and plentiful minerals-would help the United State s grow into one of the world's largest and most prosperous nations.

The Thirteen Colonies. The first English attempt to establish a colony in what is now the United States took place in 1585. Sir Walter Raleigh sent settlers to Roanoke Island, off the coast of North Carolina. But this attempt at colonization failed (see LOST COLONY).

In 1607, a small band of about 100 British colonists reached the coast near Chesapeake Bay. They founded Jamestown, the first permanent British settlement in North America (see JAMESTOWN). During the next 150 years, a steady stream of colonists came to America and settled near the coast. Most of them were British, but they also included people from France, Germany, Holland, Ireland, and other countries.

The earliest colonists faced great hardship and danger in the North American wilderness. They suffered from lack of food and from disease, and they were sometimes attacked by Indians. But the colonists soon established productive farms and plantations; built towns, roads, churches, and schools; and began many small industries. They prospered economically and, for the most part, were able to maintain peaceful relations with the Indians.

The American colonists also developed political practices and social beliefs that have had a major influence on the history of the United States. They made strides toward democratic government, and they placed a high value on individual freedom and on hard work as a means of getting ahead.



In the early 1600's, the English king began granting charters for the purpose of establishing colonies in America. The charters went to companies of merchants and to individuals called proprietors. The merchants and proprietors were responsible for recruiting people to settle in America and, at first, for governing them. By the mid-1700's, most of the settlements had been formed into 13 British colonies. Each colony had a governor and legislature, but each was under the ultimate control of the British government.

The 13 colonies stretched from what is now Maine in the north to Georgia in the south. They included the New England Colonies of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire in the far north; the Middle Colonies of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware; the two Chesapeake Colonies of Virginia and Maryland, along Chesapeake Bay; and the Southern Colonies of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia in the far south.

The Chesapeake Colonies were among the earliest British colonies. They were established for different reasons, but they both developed in much the same way.

Virginia began with the Jamestown settlement of 1607. The Virginia Company of London (later shortened to Virginia Company), an organization of English merchants and other interested people, sent the settlers to America, hoping that they would find gold and other treasures. But the settlers found no treasures at Jamestown, and they faced great hardships. Captain John Smith played a leading role in helping the colony survive in its early days. In 1612, some Jamestown colonists began growing tobacco, which the Virginia Company sold in Europe. The crop soon became popular, and-as tobacco production mounted-Virginia prospered. New farms and settlements sprang up in the colony.

Maryland was founded by the Calverts, a family of wealthy English Roman Catholics. Catholics were persecuted in England, and the Calverts wanted to provide a place where Catholics could enjoy freedom. In 1632, Cecilius Calvert became proprietor of the Maryland area. Colonists, led by Leonard Calvert, established the first Maryland settlement in 1634. The Maryland settlers also raised tobacco. As tobacco production increased, their colony grew and prospered.

The people of Virginia and Maryland made important strides toward democracy and individual liberty. The Virginians appealed to the Virginia Company for a voice in their local government. The company wanted to attract newcomers to its colony, and so it agreed. In 1619, it established the House of Burgesses, the first representative legislature in America (see HOUSE OF BURGESSES). Maryland attracted both Catholic and Protestant settlers. In 1649, the Calverts granted religious freedom to people of both faiths. This was the first religious toleration act in North America.

New England. Puritans, originally financed by English merchants, founded the New England Colonies. Puritans were English Protestants who faced persecution because of their opposition to the Church of England, Britain's official church. See PURITANS.

In 1620, a group of Separatists (Puritans who had separated from the Church of England) and other colonists settled in New England. Called Pilgrims, they founded Plymouth Colony-the second permanent British settlement in North America. Between 1628 and 1630, Puritans founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony at what are now Salem and Boston. Plymouth became part of Massachusetts Colony in 1691. See PLYMOUTH COLONY; MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY.

Settlers spreading out from Massachusetts founded the three other colonies in New England. Connecticut was first settled in 1633 and became a colony in 1636. Colonists settled in Rhode Island in 1636. Rhode Island became a colony in 1647. New Hampshire, first settled in 1623, became a colony in 1680.

Important Puritan leaders of the New England Colonies included governors William Bradford of Plymouth and John Winthrop of Massachusetts, and Roger Williams, the founder of Rhode Island.

Life in New England centered around towns. Each family farmed its own plot of land, but they all lived close together in a town. The early New England colonists relied on farming to earn a living. But before long, the New Englanders started many small industries, including fishing, lumber, and crafts.

The Puritans also contributed to democracy in America. The Pilgrims created the Mayflower Compact, an agreement among the adult males to provide "just and equal laws" for all (see MAYFLOWER COMPACT). The New England Puritans also held town meetings, where the adult males worked together to frame laws.

The Middle Colonies. Soon after British settlement started, the Dutch founded New Netherland, a trading post and colony that included what are now New York and northern New Jersey. They began a permanent settlement in New York in 1624, and in New Jersey in 1660. In 1638, the Swedes established a trading post and settlement called New Sweden in present-day Delaware and southern New Jersey. The Dutch claimed New Sweden in 1655. But in 1664, the British-far better established in America than the Dutch-took over New Netherland and New Sweden.

King Charles II of England gave the New York and New Jersey territory to his brother, James, Duke of York. Friends of the duke founded huge farming estates in northern New York. New York City developed from the Dutch city of New Amsterdam in southern New York. It became a shipping and trading center. The Duke of York gave New Jersey to two of his friends who allowed much political and religious freedom. As a result, New Jersey attracted many settlers.

Swedes established a small settlement in what is now Pennsylvania in 1643. In 1681, William Penn of England received a charter that made him proprietor of Pennsylvania. Penn was a Quaker-a religious group that was persecuted in many countries (see QUAKERS). At Penn's urging, Quakers and other settlers who sought freedom flocked to Pennsylvania. Penn carefully planned settlements in his colony, and Pennsylvania thrived. Philadelphia, one of the settlements, became the largest city in colonial America. Penn also became proprietor of the Delaware area.

The Southern Colonies. In 1663, King Charles II gave the land between Virginia and Florida, called Carolina, to eight proprietors. Virginians had set up a settlement in the northern part of Carolina about 10 years earlier. After 1663, Carolina attracted British settlers, French Protestants called Huguenots, and Americans from other colonies. In 1712, the northern two-thirds of the region was divided into two colonies, North Carolina and South Carolina. North Carolina developed as a colony of small farms and fur trading activity. In South Carolina, wealthy landowners established rice and indigo plantations. The plantations required many laborers, and landowners filled this need by bringing many blacks to the colony as slaves. The coastal settlement of Charleston, S.C., became a rich seaport and lively social center.

The southern one-third of Carolina remained largely unsettled until 1733. Then, James Oglethorpe of England founded Georgia there. Oglethorpe hoped Georgia would become a colony of small farms. The colony's charter prohibited the importation of blacks so that neither slavery nor plantations would develop. But by 1750, Georgia law had been changed to allow settlers to bring in slaves, and plantations soon developed.

Life in colonial America

Reports of the economic success and religious and political freedom of the early colonists attracted a steady flow of new settlers. Through immigration and natural growth, the colonial population rose to 1 1/3 million by 1753. Most of the settlers came from Britain, but the colonies also drew newcomers from almost every other country of Western Europe. In addition, the slave trade brought in so many Africans that, by the 1750's, blacks made up about 20 per cent of the population. Yet despite the varied backgrounds of the early settlers, Americans of the mid-1700's had-as one writer said-"melted into a new race of men."

The colonists. Europeans knew that a person who went to America faced great hardship and danger. But the New World also offered people the opportunity for a new start in life. As a result, many people were eager to become colonists.

Some Europeans came to America seeking religious freedom. In addition to the Puritans, Roman Catholics, Quakers, and Huguenots, they included Jews and members of German Protestant sects.

Other Europeans became colonists for economic reasons. Some were well enough off, but saw America as a place where they could become rich. Many poor Europeans also became colonists. Most of them came to America as indentured servants. An indentured servant agreed to work for another person, called a master, in America. In return, the master paid for the servant's transportation and provided the servant with food, clothing, and shelter. Most agreements between servants and masters lasted about four years, after which the servants were free to work for themselves.

Still other people who came to America had no choice in the matter. They included prisoners from overcrowded English jails, Irishmen captured by the English in battle, and black Africans captured in intertribal warfare and sold to European traders. The prisoners and captives were sold into service in America.

At first, the blacks had the same legal status as white indentured servants. But by about 1660, black equality had faded. Many masters began extending the period of service of their black servants indefinitely. This marked the beginning of slavery in North America. Some people in all the American Colonies owned slaves, but slavery became more common in the South than in the North. The South had plantations that required large numbers of laborers, and the plantation owners found it profitable to buy slaves to do the work.

The economy. The earliest colonists had to struggle to produce enough food to stay alive. But before long, colonial America had a thriving economy. Planters grew large crops of rice, indigo, and tobacco. Small farmers raised livestock and such crops as corn and wheat. When not busy in their fields, many farmers fished or hunted. Some cut lumber from forests to provide the materials for such products as barrels and ships. The colonists used part of what they produced, but they exported large quantities of goods. They traded chiefly with Britain, whose manufacturing firms depended on raw materials from its colonies. In return, they received manufactured goods. The colonies also traded with the French, Dutch, and Spanish.

Economic and social opportunity. Colonial America, like Europe, had both wealthy upper-class people and poor lower-class people. But in Europe, old traditions made economic and social advancement rare. America had no such traditions. Advancement was possible for everyone willing to work hard except slaves. In the New World, land was plentiful and easy to obtain, and there were many opportunities to start new businesses. Indentured servants often obtained land or worked in a trade after their period of service ended. Often, they or their sons became well-to-do merchants or landowners. The colonies had a great need for professional people, such as lawyers, physicians, schoolteachers, and members of the clergy. Because little training was required for these jobs, they were open to almost everyone.

The colonists and government. The colonists rejected the old idea that government was an institution inherited from the past. Instead, they regarded it as something they themselves had created for their own use. The colonists lived under British rule. But to them, laws made in Britain meant little until they were enforced on the spot. They often ignored British laws. This independent attitude would soon lead to a clash between the Americans and the British.

For more information on life in the American Colonies, see COLONIAL LIFE IN AMERICA.

Background to the revolution

Relations between the American Colonies and Britain began to break down during the mid-1700's. Little by little, Britain tightened its control over the colonies. Its leaders passed laws that taxed the colonists and restricted their freedom. The colonists had become accustomed to governing themselves, and had developed a sense of unity and independence. As a result, they deeply resented what they considered British interference in their affairs. Friction between the Americans and British mounted, and, on April 19, 1775, the Revolutionary War broke out between the two sides. During the war-on July 4, 1776-the colonists boldly declared their independence from their mighty British rulers. In 1783, they defeated the British and made their claim to independence stick.



The French and Indian War. Britain and France had struggled for control of eastern North America throughout the colonial period. As their settlements moved inland, both nations claimed the vast territory between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. The struggle led to the outbreak of the French and Indian War in 1754.

The British won the war, and, under the Treaty of Paris of 1763, Britain gained control of: (1) almost all French territory in what is now Canada, and (2) all French territory east of the Mississippi River except New Orleans. Britain also received Florida from Spain in 1763. As a result, the British controlled almost all of North America from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River.

The French and Indian War was a turning point in American history. It triggered a series of British policy changes that eventually led to the colonial independence movement. See FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS (The French and Indian War).

British policy changes. The French and Indian War created problems for the British. After the war, Britain had to find ways to strengthen its control over its enlarged American territory. Also, Britain had spent so much money fighting the French and Indian War that its national debt had nearly doubled. George III, who had become king of Britain in 1760, instructed the British Parliament to establish policies to solve these problems. Parliament soon began passing laws that restricted the freedom of the American colonists, taxed them, or both.

In 1763, Parliament voted to station a standing army in North America to strengthen British control. Two years later, in the Quartering Act, it ruled that colonists must provide British troops with living quarters and supplies. Britain also sought to keep peace in North America by establishing good relations with the Indians. The Indians had already lost a good deal of territory to the white settlers. A British proclamation of October, 1763, prohibited American colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains until treaties with the Indians might open up areas there.

King George and Parliament believed the time had come for the colonists to start obeying trade regulations and paying their share of the cost of maintaining the British Empire. In 1764, Parliament passed the Sugar Act. This law provided for the efficient collection of taxes on molasses brought into the colonies. It also gave British officials the right to search the premises of persons suspected of violating the law. The Stamp Act of 1765 extended to the colonies the traditional English tax on newspapers, legal documents, and various other written materials (see STAMP ACT).

Colonial reaction. The colonists bitterly opposed the new British policies. They claimed that the British government had no right to restrict their settlement or deny their freedom in any other way. They also strongly opposed British taxes. The colonists were not represented in Parliament. Therefore, they argued, Britain had no right to tax them. The colonists expressed this belief in the slogan, "Taxation Without Representation is Tyranny."

To protest the new laws, colonists organized a widespread boycott of British goods. Many colonists joined secret clubs called Sons of Liberty. These groups threatened to use violence to prevent enforcement of the laws (see SONS OF LIBERTY). In 1765, representatives of nine colonies met in the Stamp Act Congress to consider joint action against Britain.

A brief easing of tensions. The colonial boycott and resistance alarmed Britain's leaders. In 1766, Parliament repealed the offensive Stamp Act. But at the same time, it declared that Britain still had the right to make laws for the colonies.

The road to independence

Renewed conflict. The relaxation of tensions between the Americans and the British proved to be short-lived. In 1767, Parliament passed the Townshend Acts, which taxed lead, paint, paper, and tea imported into the colonies. These and other laws renewed discontent among the colonists. As tensions between the Americans and British grew, Britain reacted by sending troops into Boston and New York City.

The sight of British troops in the city streets aroused colonial anger. On March 5, 1770, Boston civilians taunted a group of troops. The troops fired on the civilians, killing three persons and wounding eight others, two of whom died later. This incident, called the Boston Massacre, shocked Americans and unnerved the British. See BOSTON MASSACRE

In 1770, Parliament repealed all provisions of the Townshend Acts with one exception-the tax on tea. Three years later, Parliament reduced the tax on tea sold by the East India Company, a British firm. The British actions offended the colonists in two ways. They reaffirmed Britain's right to tax the colonists and gave the East India Company an unfair advantage in the tea trade. Furious Americans vowed not to use tea and colonial merchants refused to sell it. On Dec. 16, 1773, a group of American colonists staged the Boston Tea Party to dramatize their opposition. Dressed as Indians, the colonists boarded East India Company ships and threw tea the ships contained into Boston Harbor. See BOSTON TEA PARTY.

In 1774-in the Quebec Act-Britain extended the boundary of its colony of Quebec to include territory north of the Ohio River. Quebec had a large French population, and the Americans resented the expansion of the colony. See QUEBEC ACT.

The Intolerable Acts. Angered by the Boston Tea Party, Parliament passed laws to punish the colonists early in 1774. Called the Intolerable Acts by the Americans, the laws included provisions that closed the port of Boston, gave increased power to the British royal governor of the colony of Massachusetts, and required the colonists to house and feed British soldiers. See INTOLERABLE ACTS.

The First Continental Congress. The Intolerable Acts stirred colonial anger more than ever before. On Sept. 5, 1774, delegates from 12 colonies met in the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. The delegates were responsible men who disliked lawlessness, and they still hoped for a settlement with the British government. They reaffirmed American loyalty to Britain and agreed that Parliament had the power to direct colonial foreign affairs. But at the same time, the delegates called for an end to all trade with Britain until Parliament repealed certain laws and taxes, including the Intolerable Acts. King George shattered hope for reconciliation by insisting that the colonies either submit to British rule or be crushed. See CONTINENTAL CONGRESS.

The Revolutionary War begins. On April 19, 1775, British troops tried to seize or destroy the military supplies of the Massachusetts militia. This action led to the start of the Revolutionary War. Colonists-first at Lexington, and then at Concord, Massachusetts-took up arms to turn back the British. At Concord, the determined Americans stopped the British advance. Word of their success spread, and hope for victory over Britain grew. Colonial leaders met in the Second Continental Congress on May 10, 1775. The Congress faced the task of preparing the colonies for war. It organized the Continental Army, which colonists from all walks of life joined. On June 15, the Congress named George Washington of Virginia commander in chief of the army.

King George officially declared the colonies in rebellion on Aug. 23, 1775. He warned the Americans to end their rebellion or face certain defeat by Britain. However, the threat had no effect on the colonists' determination to fight on. Some of the people-called Loyalists-favored submission to British rule, but a growing number of Americans now supported the fight for independence. Many people who had been unsure were convinced by reading Thomas Paine's pamphlet Common Sense. Paine-in this brilliant plea for the cause of freedom-stated the simple alternatives open to the Americans: They must either accept the tyranny of the British Crown or throw off their shackles by proclaiming a republic.

The Declaration of Independence. On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress officially declared independence and formed the United States of America by adopting the Declaration of Independence. Written by Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, the declaration was a sweeping indictment of the king, Parliament, and the British people. It also set forth certain self-evident truths that were basic to the revolutionary cause. It said that all men are created equal, and are endowed by their Creator with rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. To protect those rights, men organized governments, and the governments derived their powers from the consent of the governed. But when a government ceased to preserve the rights, it was the duty of the people to change the government, or abolish it and form a new one.

Thus the colonists were fighting for philosophical principles as well as specific objectives. The spirit aroused by the Declaration of Independence was an important factor in the ultimate American victory. See DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.

Victory over a great empire. The Americans were challenging the world's most powerful empire in the Revolutionary War. They lacked a well-trained army, officers who were accustomed to commanding troops, and munitions and money. But they had the advantage of fighting on their home territory. The British, on the other hand, had well-trained and well-equipped troops and officers, but they were fighting in an unfamiliar land thousands of miles from home. The American cause was also helped by aid from France and other European nations that opposed Britain.

The Revolutionary War raged on through the 1770's. Then, on Oct. 19, 1781, the Americans won a decisive victory at the Battle of Yorktown in Virginia. Thousands of British soldiers surrendered there. Within months, the British government decided to seek peace. Two years of peace negotiations and occasional fighting followed. Finally, on Sept. 3, 1783, the Americans and the British signed the Treaty of Paris of 1783, officially ending the Revolutionary War.

For a detailed account of the war for independence, see REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN AMERICA.

American attitudes and independence

Through the years, the American people had developed attitudes that help explain their strong desire to gain freedom from the British. These attitudes included a deep belief in government by the people, a sense of unity, an optimistic view of the future, and strong nationalistic feelings.

Government by the people. When the American colonies were first settled, merchants and large landowners held most of the political power. But little by little, other colonists began to use the political process to express their views on important issues. Such issues included the ownership of land, representation in government, taxation, and the role of the church in society. The colonists learned to back candidates for public office who would represent their views and challenge the power of the ruling class.

The ruling merchants and landowners presented only half-hearted resistance to this widening of political power. They needed the aid of the lower classes to back their opposition to British policy. Furthermore, the very argument for self-government that the colonial leaders used against the British justified those seeking to share political power within the colonies. By 1774, America no longer was a society in which the few ruled with the passive consent of the many. Instead, large numbers of people had an active voice in government.

Unity, optimism, and nationalism. Through the years, the colonists had developed feelings of unity. Their opposition to the British led them to rely on one another more and more. Groups called committees of correspondence were set up throughout the colonies to provide organized opposition to Britain. Supported voluntarily by the people, the committees decided what action should be taken against the British in times of crisis. See COMMITTEES OF CORRESPONDENCE.

The colonial Americans also shared an optimistic view of their future. They were impressed by the rapid growth of their colonies, and they loved to calculate how much more their population and wealth would yet increase.

Unity and progress led to an increasing sense of nationalism among the people. By 1774, the colonists no longer thought of themselves as transplanted Europeans, but rather as Americans.

Establishing a government

As a result of the Treaty of Paris of 1783, the new nation controlled all of North America from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River between Canada and Florida. Canada, to the north, remained British territory. Britain returned Florida to Spain, and Spain continued to control the area west of the Mississippi River.

The original 13 colonies made up the first 13 states of the United States. Eventually, the American land west of the Appalachian Mountains was divided into territories.

At the end of the Revolutionary War, the new nation was still a loose confederation of states. But in 1787, American leaders got together and wrote the Constitution of the United States. The Constitution became the country's basic law and welded it together into a solid political unit. The men who wrote it included some of the most famous and important figures in American history. Among them were George Washington and James Madison of Virginia, Alexander Hamilton of New York, and Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania. The authors of the Constitution, along with other early leaders such as Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, won lasting fame as the Founding Fathers of the United States.

At the start of its history, the United States faced severe financial problems. But before long, the skill of its leaders and the spirit and hard work of its people put the country on a sound economic footing. Early America also faced threats from powerful European nations. But masterful diplomacy by Washington and other leaders guided the country through its early years in peace. The peace ended with the War of 1812, in which the United States and the United Kingdom fought to a standstill. After the war, America focused its attention on its development, and entered a period of bustling economic growth.



The American people began setting up a new system of government as soon as they declared their independence. Each of the new states had its own constitution before the Revolutionary War ended. The state constitutions gave the people certain liberties, usually including freedom of speech, religion, and the press. In 1781, the states set up a federal government under laws called the Articles of Confederation.

Background to the Constitution. The Articles of Confederation gave the federal government the power to declare war and manage foreign affairs. But the Articles did not allow the government to collect taxes, regulate trade, or otherwise direct the activities of the states.

Under the Articles, each state worked independently for its own ends. Yet the new nation faced problems that demanded a strong federal government. The United States had piled up a huge national debt during the Revolutionary War. But since the federal government could not collect taxes, it was unable to pay the debt and put the country on a sound economic footing. The government even lacked the means for raising money to provide for national defense. The federal government had no power to regulate the nation's trade. In addition, some states issued their own paper money, causing sharp changes in the value of currency and economic chaos. See ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION.

Creating the Constitution. In 1786, Virginia persuaded five states to send delegates to a convention at Annapolis, Maryland, to discuss interstate commerce. The delegates decided that the Articles of Confederation would have to be revised and wrote a report calling for all states to join in a new convention. In 1787, delegates from every state except Rhode Island met in Philadelphia's Independence Hall to consider revisions to the Articles. Rhode Island did not take part because it resented "outside interference" in its affairs. The delegates decided against simply revising the Articles of Confederation. Instead, they agreed to write an entirely new Constitution. The convention chose George Washington as presiding officer.

The delegates debated long and hard over the contents of the Constitution. Some of them wanted a document that gave much power to the federal government. Others wanted to protect the rights of the states and called for a weak central government. Delegates from large states claimed their states should have greater representation in Congress than the small states. But small-state delegates demanded equal representation in Congress.

The delegates finally reached agreement on a new Constitution on Sept. 17, 1787. The document they produced has often been called a work of political genius. The authors skillfully worked out a system of government that satisfied the opposing views of the people of the 1780's. At the same time, they created a system of government flexible enough to continue in its basic form to the present day.

The Constitution provided for a two-house legislature-a House of Representatives and a Senate. Representation in the House was based on population in order to satisfy the large states. All states received equal representation in the Senate, which pleased the small states. The Constitution gave many powers to the federal government, including the rights to collect taxes and regulate trade. But the document also reserved certain powers for the states. The Constitution provided for three branches of government: the executive, headed by a president; the legislature, made up of the two houses of Congress; and the judiciary, or federal court system. In a master stroke of government organization, the creators of the Constitution provided for a system of checks and balances among the three branches of government. Each branch received powers and duties that ensured that the other branches would not have too much power.

Adopting the Constitution. Before the Constitution became law, it needed ratification (approval) by nine states. Some Americans still opposed the Constitution, and fierce debate over ratification broke out. Hamilton, Madison, and John Jay responded to criticism of the document in a series of letters to newspapers. Called The Federalist, the letters gained much support for the Constitution (see FEDERALIST, THE). On June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify.

The Bill of Rights. Much opposition to the new Constitution stemmed from the fact that it did not specifically guarantee enough individual rights. In response, 10 amendments known as the Bill of Rights were added to the document. The Bill of Rights became law on Dec. 15, 1791. Among other things, it guaranteed freedom of speech, religion, the press, and the rights to trial by jury and peaceful assembly.

For more details, see CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES; BILL OF RIGHTS.

Setting up the government. The Constitution provided that the president be elected by an Electoral College, a group of people chosen by the states (see ELECTORAL COLLEGE). In 1789, the Electoral College unanimously chose Washington to serve as the first president. It reelected him unanimously in 1792. The people elected the members of the first House of Representatives, as they do today. But the senators were chosen by the state legislatures, a practice that continued until the early 1900's. The government went into operation in 1789, with its temporary capital in New York City. The capital was moved to Philadelphia in 1790, and to Washington, D.C., in 1800.

Early problems and politics

Solving financial problems. Financial problems plagued the new government. The national debt piled up during the Revolutionary War threatened the financial structure of the United States. The nation also needed internal improvements such as roads and bridges, but the federal government could not afford to pay for them.

Americans split over how to deal with the financial problems. One group, led by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, wanted the federal government to take vigorous action. Another group, headed by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, opposed government participation in economic affairs.

Hamilton proposed that the federal government increase tariffs and tax certain products made in the United States, such as liquor. The government would use the tax money to pay both its debts and the debts of the states. The government would also have money for ongoing expenses and internal improvements. Hamilton also proposed a government-supported national bank to control government finances.

Jefferson and his followers, who included many Southerners, denounced all of Hamilton's plans. But Jefferson later agreed to support some of Hamilton's financial proposals. In return, Hamilton agreed to support a shift of the national capital to the South. Congress approved Hamilton's financial plan and agreed to locate the capital in the South. Jefferson continued to oppose the national bank proposal. But in 1791, Congress chartered a national bank for 20 years (see BANK OF THE UNITED STATES.

Enforcing federal law. The new tax program led to the Whiskey Rebellion. In 1794, farmers in Pennsylvania who made whiskey refused to pay the tax on liquor. President Washington sent in troops who ended the rebellion. Washington's action did much to establish the federal government's authority to enforce its laws within the states. See WHISKEY REBELLION.

Foreign affairs. The new government also faced problems in foreign affairs. In 1793, France went to war against Britain and Spain. France had helped the Americans in the Revolutionary War, and it now expected U.S. assistance in its war. Americans disagreed over which side to support. Jefferson and his followers wanted the United States to back France, while Hamilton and his group favored the British.

President Washington insisted that the United States remain neutral in the European war. He rejected French demands for support, and also sent diplomats to Britain and Spain to clear up problems with those countries. Chief Justice John Jay, acting for Washington, negotiated the Jay Treaty with Britain in 1794. The treaty's many provisions included a trade agreement with Britain which-in effect-ended American trade with France. It also included a British promise to remove troops still stationed on U.S. territory. In 1795, Thomas Pinckney negotiated the Pinckney Treaty, or Treaty of San Lorenzo, with Spain. This treaty settled a dispute over the Florida border between the United States and Spain and also gave the United States free use of the Mississippi River. See JAY TREATY; PINCKNEY TREATY.

In 1796, Washington-annoyed by the disputes within his -refused to seek a third term as president. John Adams succeeded him in 1797. At about that time, French warships began attacking American merchant vessels. Adams, like Washington, hoped to use diplomacy to solve foreign problems. He sent diplomats to France to try to end the attacks. But three agents of the French government insulted the diplomats with dishonorable proposals, including a demand for a bribe. The identity of the agents was not revealed. They were simply called X, Y, and Z, and the incident became known as the XYZ Affair.

The XYZ Affair created a furor in the United States. Hamilton and his followers demanded war against France. But Adams was determined to keep the peace. In 1799, he again sent diplomats to France. This time, the United States and France reached a peaceful settlement. See XYZ AFFAIR.

Establishing political parties. Washington and many other early American leaders opposed political parties. But in the 1790's, the disputes over government policies led to the establishment of two political parties in the United States. Hamilton and his followers, chiefly Northerners, formed the Federalist Party. The party favored a strong federal government and generally backed Britain in international disputes. Jefferson and his followers, chiefly Southerners, established the Democratic-Republican Party. The party wanted a weak central government and generally sided with France in foreign disputes. See FEDERALIST PARTY; DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PARTY.

The Alien and Sedition Acts. The XYZ Affair had a major impact on American internal policies and politics. After the affair, the Federalist Party denounced the Democratic-Republicans for their support of France. The Federalists had a majority in Congress. They set out to silence their critics, who included Democratic-Republicans and foreigners living in the United States. In 1798, the Federalist Congress and President Adams-also a Federalist-approved the Alien and Sedition Acts. These laws made it a crime for anyone to criticize the president or Congress, and subjected foreigners to unequal treatment.

A nationwide outcry against these attacks on freedom followed. The protests included the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. The resolutions were statements by the Kentucky and Virginia state legislatures that challenged the constitutionality of the Alien and Sedition Acts. The most offensive parts of the Acts soon expired or were repealed. However, the Alien and Sedition Acts gave the Federalists the reputation as a party of oppression. See ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS; KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS.

Jeffersonian democracy

Public reaction to the Alien and Sedition Acts helped Jefferson win election as president in 1800 and again in 1804. Jefferson's political philosophy became known as Jeffersonian democracy. Jefferson envisioned the United States as a nation of small farmers. In Jefferson's ideal society, the people would lead simple, but productive, lives and be able to direct their own affairs. Therefore, the need for government would decline. Jefferson took steps to reduce government expenses and the national debt. But in spite of his beliefs and practices, Jefferson found that as president he could not avoid actions that expanded the role of government.

The Louisiana Purchase, the first major action of Jefferson's presidency, almost doubled the size of the United States. In 1801, Jefferson learned that France had taken over from Spain a large area between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains called Louisiana. Spain was a weak nation, and did not pose a threat to the United States. But France-then ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte-was powerful and aggressive. Jefferson viewed French control of Louisiana as a danger to the United States.

In 1803, Jefferson arranged the purchase of the area from France for about $15 million. The Constitution did not authorize the government to buy foreign territory. Jefferson, a defender of strict interpretation of the Constitution, had to admit that he had "stretched the Constitution until it cracked."

The Louisiana Purchase added 827,987 square miles (2,144,476 square kilometers) of territory to the United States. In 1804, Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the land. Lewis and Clark traveled all the way to the Pacific Ocean. Their reports provided valuable information about the Indians and the natural wealth of the West. See LOUISIANA PURCHASE; LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION.

The Supreme Court. John Marshall became chief justice of the United States in 1801. Under Marshall, the Supreme Court became a leading force in American society. In 1803, in the case of Marbury v. Madison, the court asserted its right to rule on the constitutionality of federal legislation (see MARBURY V. MADISON). From then until Marshall's death in 1835, the Supreme Court reviewed about 50 cases involving constitutional issues. This role of Marshall's court strengthened the nation by providing a way to ensure that government remained within constitutional bounds. But the Supreme Court also did much to increase the power of the federal government, a development Jefferson had opposed. For example, in the case of McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), the court ruled that Congress has implied powers in addition to those powers specified in the Constitution. The Supreme Court also said that federal authority prevails over state authority when the two conflict (see MCCULLOCH V. MARYLAND).

Jefferson and foreign policy. In 1803, the United Kingdom and France went to war again, and both nations began seizing American merchant ships. The British also impressed American seamen, seizing them and forcing them into British service.

Jefferson again found it necessary to use government powers, this time to protect American shipping. At his request, Congress passed trade laws designed to end British and French interference. The Embargo Act of 1807 made it illegal for American goods to be exported to foreign countries. But the embargo threatened to ruin the nation's economy, and was repealed in 1809. The Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 prohibited Americans from trading with the United Kingdom and France. But the warring nations still interfered with American trade.

The War of 1812

James Madison succeeded Jefferson as president in 1809. France soon promised to end its interference with American shipping, but the United Kingdom did not. Also, people believed the British were encouraging Indians to attack American pioneers moving westward. For these reasons, many Americans demanded war against the United Kingdom. They were led by members of Congress from the West and South called War Hawks, including Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. Other Americans, especially New Englanders, opposed the War Hawks' demand. But on June 18, 1812, at Madison's request, Congress declared war on the United Kingdom and the War of 1812 had begun.

Neither side gained much advantage early in the war. But on Aug. 24, 1814, British troops captured Washington, D.C., and burned the Capitol and other government buildings. This British action made Americans realize their nation's survival was at stake. Large numbers of American volunteers rushed into service, and helped stop the British offensive. The Treaty of Ghent, signed Dec. 24, 1814, and ratified Feb. 17, 1815, officially ended the War of 1812. Neither side won the war and little was gained from the struggle. See WAR OF 1812.

Growing nationalism

A strong spirit of nationalism swept through the United States following the War of 1812. The war itself gave rise to increased feelings of self-confidence and unity. The peace that followed enabled the nation to concentrate on its own affairs. The bitterness that had marked political disputes eased with the breakup of the Federalist Party. Meanwhile, the nation expanded westward, new states entered the union, and the economy prospered. Historians sometimes call the period from about 1815 to the early 1820's The Era of Good Feeling because of its relative peace, unity, and optimism about the future.

Nationalism and the economy. After the War of 1812, Henry Clay and other nationalists proposed economic measures that came to be called the American System. They said the government should raise tariffs to protect American manufacturers and farmers from foreign competition. Industry would then grow and employ more people. More employment would lead to greater consumption of farm products, and so farmers would prosper and buy more manufactured goods. In addition, tariff revenues would enable the government to make needed internal improvements.

The government soon put ideas of the American System into practice. In 1816, Congress enacted a high tariff, and it chartered the second Bank of the United States, to give the government more control over the economy. The government also increased its funding of internal projects, the most important of which was the National Road. Begun in 1811, the road stretched from Cumberland, Maryland, to Vandalia, Illinois, when completed. It became an important route for the shipment of goods and the movement of settlers westward (see NATIONAL ROAD).

A national culture. Many early Americans had tried to pattern their culture after European civilization. Architects, painters, and writers tended to imitate European models. But in the late 1700's and early 1800's, art and culture more and more reflected American experiences. Architects designed simple, but beautiful, houses that blended into their surroundings. Craftworkers built sturdy furniture that was suited to frontier life, yet so simply elegant as to be considered works of art. The furniture of the Shakers, a religious group, is an example. The nation's literature flourished when it began reflecting American experiences. Political writings such as the works of Thomas Paine and the authors of The Federalist had high literary merit. The works of Washington Irving, one of the leading early authors, helped gain respect for American literature.

Decline of the Federalists. In 1814 and 1815, New England Federalists held a secret political meeting in Hartford, Conn. Their opponents charged that they had discussed the secession (withdrawal) of the New England States from the Union (see HARTFORD CONVENTION). The Federalists never recovered from the charge, and the party broke up as a national organization after 1816. James Monroe, the Democratic-Republican presidential candidate in the election of 1820, was unopposed.

New territory. The United States gained two new pieces of territory between 1815 and 1820. In 1818, a treaty with the United Kingdom gave the country the Red River Basin, north of the Louisiana Territory. Spain ceded Florida to the United States in 1819.

"A fire bell in the night." The Era of Good Feeling did not mean an end to all the country's disputes. The issue of slavery was causing deep divisions among the people. Many Northerners were demanding an end to slavery, while Southerners were defending it more and more. Jefferson, then retired, accurately viewed the growing dispute as a warning of approaching disaster, "like a fire bell in the night."

The nation moves west

During the early 1800's, settlers by the thousands moved westward over the Appalachian Mountains into the new states and territories. Many of these pioneers even settled beyond the country's western boundary. They flocked into Texas, California, and other western lands belonging to Mexico. Americans also settled in the Oregon Country, a large territory between California and Alaska claimed by both the United Kingdom and the United States. During the mid-1800's, the United States gained control of the Mexican lands and the southern part of the Oregon Country, and the nation extended from coast to coast.

The pioneers were brave, hardy people who went west in search of a better life. They were attracted by the West's open land, good farmland, and rich mineral and forest resources. Through hard work, they settled the Western wilderness-as earlier Americans had done in the East.

The build-up of the West gave rise to changes in American politics. As areas in the West gained large populations, they were admitted to the Union as states. But wealthy Easterners continued to control governmental and economic policy. Western farmers and pioneers, as well as city laborers and craftworkers, soon banded together politically to promote their interests. They found a strong leader in Andrew Jackson, and helped elect him president in 1828. Jackson took steps to reduce the power of wealthy Easterners and aid the "common man." At the same time, other Americans were working for such social reforms as women's rights, improvements in education, and the abolition of slavery.

The United States and Europe maintained peaceful relations during the Expansion Era. But in 1823, President James Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine, a statement that warned European countries not to interfere with any of the free nations of the Western Hemisphere (see MONROE DOCTRINE).



By 1820, American pioneers had established many frontier settlements as far west as the Mississippi River. By the 1830's, the Westward Movement had pushed the frontier across the Mississippi, into Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, and eastern Texas. The land beyond, called the Great Plains, was dry and treeless, and seemed to be poor farmland. But explorers, traders, and others who had journeyed farther west told of rich farmland and forests beyond the Rocky Mountains. In the 1840's, large numbers of pioneers made the long journey across the Great Plains to the Far West.

The pioneers included Easterners from both the North and South. Many other pioneers came from Europe seeking a better life. Some people went west in search of religious freedom. The best known of these were the Mormons, who settled in Utah in 1847.

Most of the pioneers became farmers who owned their own plots. But urban life also moved westward with the frontier. Bustling towns and cities grew up in the West. There, traders in farm goods and other products of the West carried on brisk businesses. The urban centers also attracted churches, banks, stores, and hotels; and craftworkers, doctors, lawyers, law officers, schoolteachers, and members of the clergy.

For more details on the pioneers, see PIONEER LIFE IN AMERICA; WESTWARD MOVEMENT IN AMERICA.

Manifest destiny. By the mid-1840's, thousands of Americans lived in the Oregon Country and on the western land claimed by Mexico. By then, large numbers of Americans had come to believe in the doctrine of manifest destiny. That is, they thought the United States should control all of North America. Stirred by this belief, Americans demanded control of Oregon and the Mexican territory.

The conflicting claim with the United Kingdom over Oregon was settled with relative ease. The United Kingdom decided that the effort needed to hold all of Oregon was not worthwhile. In 1846, the British government turned over to the United States the part of the Oregon territory south of the 49th parallel, except Vancouver Island. See OREGON TERRITORY.

The struggle over the Mexican territory was more complicated. It began in Texas in 1835, when the American settlers there staged a revolt against Mexican rule. In 1836, the settlers proclaimed Texas an independent republic, but also requested U.S. statehood. Nine years later, the United States annexed Texas and made it a state.

The United States gained more Mexican territory as a result of the Mexican War. In 1846, President James K. Polk sent General Zachary Taylor to occupy land near the Rio Grande that both the United States and Mexico claimed. Fighting broke out between Taylor's troops and Mexican soldiers. On May 13, 1846, at Polk's request, Congress declared war on Mexico. The United States quickly defeated its weak neighbor. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on Feb. 2, 1848, officially ended the war. The treaty gave the United States a vast stretch of land from Texas west to the Pacific and north to Oregon.

In 1853, in the Gadsden Purchase, America bought from Mexico the strip of land that makes up the southern edge of Arizona and New Mexico. The United States then owned all the territory of its present states except Alaska (purchased from Russia in 1867) and Hawaii (annexed in 1898). See MEXICAN WAR; GADSDEN PURCHASE.

The western territory gained by the United States added to the American spirit of national pride and was a key factor in the nation's economic growth. But it also helped widen the split between the North and South, and helped bring on the Civil War. See The irrepressible conflict section of this article.

Expansion and the Indians. As the pioneers moved westward, they took over much of the land that Indians had occupied for thousands of years. Fighting often broke out between the pioneers and Indians. The United States government sent soldiers to battle the Indians and the soldiers won most of these so-called Indian Wars. By the mid-1800's, the government had moved almost all the eastern Indians west of the Mississippi River. See INDIAN WARS (Along the frontier).

Expansion and the economy. Expansion into the rich interior of the continent enabled the United States to become the world's leading agricultural nation. Many of the pioneer farmers found they could produce more than they needed for their families. They then concentrated on products with high sales value. Cotton was in great demand by textile mills in Europe and the Eastern United States. Farmers in the South as far west as Texas raised cotton to supply the mills. Many settlers in Kentucky and Tennessee prospered by growing tobacco. Midwesterners produced large crops of corn and wheat, and also raised much livestock. Farmers in the Far West raised wheat, fruit, and other valuable products.

New techniques and machines boosted the output of America's farms. Eli Whitney's cotton gin, invented in 1793, came into widespread use in the 1800's. It enabled cotton growers to separate cotton fiber from the seeds as fast as 50 people could by hand. The reaper, patented by Cyrus McCormick in 1834, allowed farmers to harvest grain much more quickly than before. See COTTON GIN; REAPER.

The discovery of minerals in the West also aided America's economy. The most famous mineral strike took place in 1848, when gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill in California. See FORTY-NINERS; GOLD RUSH.

The period also marked the beginning of large-scale manufacturing in the United States. Previously, most manufacturing was done by craftworkers at home or in small shops. But beginning in the early 1800's, businesses erected factories equipped with modern machinery that enabled them to produce goods more rapidly. Manufacturing remained centered in the East, but some Western towns developed industries.

Developments in transportation also contributed immensely to economic growth in the United States. New or improved roads-such as the National Road in the East and the Oregon and Santa Fe trails in the West-eased the difficulty of traveling and shipping goods by land.

In 1807, Robert Fulton demonstrated the first commercially successful steamboat, the Clermont. The steamboat soon became the fastest and most important means of shipping goods. Americans of the early 1800's built many canals to connect their natural waterways. The Erie Canal, the most important one, was completed in 1825. It opened a water passage from the Hudson River in New York to the Great Lakes in the Midwest. Boats used the canal to carry manufactured products from the East to the West and farm products and raw materials from the West to the East (see ERIE CANAL).

The steam-powered railroad soon rivaled the steamboat in importance as a means of shipping. In the 1820's, American railroads were still in the experimental stage. But by 1850, about 9,000 miles (14,500 kilometers) of railroad lines were in operation.

In 1837, Samuel F. B. Morse demonstrated the first successful telegraph in the United States. The telegraph soon gave businesses the fastest means of communication yet known. An expanded postal system also helped speed communications.

Cultural change. After 1820, the wilderness seemed less and less hostile to Americans. Increasingly, society glorified the frontier and nature. The public eagerly read the novels of James Fenimore Cooper, which described Indians and pioneers as pure of heart and noble in deeds. Ralph Waldo Emerson and other American philosophers praised nature as a source of truth and beauty available to all people, rich and poor alike.

Developments in printing spread art and information to more people than ever before. A new printing process called lithography enabled artists to produce many copies of their works cheaply. Large numbers of Americans bought and decorated their homes with lithographs. The lithographs of Nathaniel Currier and James Merritt Ives were especially popular. They depicted everyday American scenes, customs, and events-often in a sentimental style. Faster printing presses reduced the cost of printing newspapers. After 1835, many newspaper publishers lowered the cost of their papers to a penny, a price even poor people could afford. But the spoken word remained an important means of mass communication. Large numbers of people attended gatherings where political candidates, pleaders of special causes, and famous lawyers and members of the clergy made speeches.

City people of the Expansion Era flocked to theaters to enjoy plays, minstrel shows, and other forms of entertainment. Groups of entertainers also toured the country, performing before small-town audiences. P. T. Barnum, the most famous showman of the time, fascinated the public with exhibitions of midgets, "fat ladies," and other unusual attractions.

Politics and the "common man"

The election of 1824 led to renewed political friction in the United States. Four Democratic-Republicans, including John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson, sought to succeed Monroe as president. Jackson received the most electoral votes. But he did not win a majority, so it fell upon the House of Representatives to select the new president. The House chose Adams. Embittered, Jackson and his followers formed a separate wing of the Democratic-Republican Party, which soon developed into the Democratic Party.

Jacksonian Democracy. Adams and all the earlier presidents came from well-to-do Eastern families. Jackson, by contrast, was born in a log cabin into a poor family. He won national fame as an Indian fighter and as a hero of the War of 1812.

Jackson ran for president again in 1828. He appealed for support from Western farmers and pioneers, and city laborers and craftworkers. He promised to end what he called a "monopoly" of government by the rich and to protect the interests of the "common man." His policy of equal political power for all became known as Jacksonian Democracy. Jackson's background and policies gained him much support in the West and in the nation's growing cities. The voters elected him president by wide margins in 1828 and again in 1832.

Jackson as president. When Jackson became president, many wealthy Easterners held what were, in effect, lifelong appointments to federal government jobs. Jackson dismissed many of these people from office, replacing them with his supporters. Some historians consider this action the start of the spoils system in the federal government. See SPOILS SYSTEM.

Jackson's main crusade against the wealthy involved the second Bank of the United States. The bank's duties included regulating the nation's money supply. Jackson believed the bank operated as a monopoly that favored the wealthy. In 1832, Congress voted to recharter the bank, but Jackson vetoed the bill. He soon withdrew the government's money from the bank, and the bank later collapsed.

The other great issue of Jackson's involved the tariff and nullification. In 1828, Congress passed a bill that placed high tariffs on goods imported into the United States. The South believed the bill favored New England manufacturing interests, and denounced it as a "tariff of abominations." Speaking for South Carolina, Calhoun (then the vice president) claimed any state could nullify a federal law it deemed unconstitutional. In 1832, Congress lowered tariffs somewhat, but not enough to please South Carolina. South Carolina declared the tariff acts "null and void," and threatened to secede from the Union if the federal government tried to collect tariffs in the state. This action created a constitutional crisis. Jackson believed in states' rights, but maintained the Union must be preserved. In 1833, he persuaded Congress to pass a law called a force bill, which allowed him to use the armed forces to collect tariffs. But Congress lowered tariffs to a point acceptable to South Carolina, and the nullification crisis ended. See NULLIFICATION.

Politics after Jackson. Jackson's influence on politics continued after he left office. As undisputed leader of the Democrats, Jackson designated Martin Van Buren to be the party's candidate in the 1836 presidential election. Jackson's opponents had formed the Whig Party four years earlier. In an attempt to attract followers of Jackson, most Whigs supported William Henry Harrison to oppose Van Buren. Harrison, like Jackson, had won fame as a war hero. But the voters, still loyal to Jackson, elected Van Buren.

A depression called the Panic of 1837 crippled the American economy shortly after Van Buren took office, but prosperity later returned. The presidential election of 1840 again matched Van Buren and Harrison. In their campaign, the Whigs made some attempt to criticize Van Buren's economic policies, but for the most part they ignored issues. Instead, they promoted Harrison as a war hero and associated him with hard cider, the log cabin, and other symbols of the frontier. In this way, they appealed to many of Jackson's frontier supporters, and Harrison won the election.

Social reform

During the Expansion Era, many Americans came to believe that social reforms were needed to improve their society. Churches and social groups set up charities to aid the poor and teach them how to help themselves. Reformers worked to reduce the working day of laborers from the usual 12 or 14 hours to 10 hours. Prohibitionists-convinced that drunkenness was the chief cause of poverty and other problems-persuaded 13 states to outlaw the sale of alcohol between 1846 and 1855. Dorothea Dix and others worked to improve the dismal conditions in the nation's prisons and insane asylums. Other important targets of reformers were women's rights, improvements in education, and the abolition of slavery.

The drive for women's rights. Early American women had few rights. There were almost no colleges for women, and most professional careers were closed to them. A married woman could not own property. Instead, any property she had legally belonged to her husband. In addition, American women were barred from voting in almost all elections.

A women's rights movement developed after 1820, and brought about some changes. In 1833, the Oberlin Collegiate Institute (now Oberlin College) opened as the first coeducational college in the United States. Some men's colleges soon began admitting women, and new colleges for women were built. In 1848, New York passed a law allowing women to keep control of their own real estate and personal property after marriage. That same year, Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton organized a Woman's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, N.Y. The convention issued the first formal appeal for woman suffrage (the right to vote). But nationwide suffrage did not come about until 1920.

Education reform. In the early 1800's, most good schools in the United States were expensive private schools. Poor children went to second-rate "pauper," or "charity," schools, or did not go at all. During the 1830's, Horace Mann of Massachusetts and other reformers began demanding education and better schools for all American children. States soon began establishing public school systems, and more and more children received an education. Colleges started training teachers for a system of public education based on standardized courses of study. As a result, schoolchildren throughout the country were taught much the same lessons. For example, almost all children of the mid-1800's studied the McGuffey, or Eclectic, Readers to learn to read. These books taught patriotism and morality as well as reading (see MCGUFFEY, WILLIAM H.).

The abolition movement became the most intense and controversial reform activity of the period. Beginning in colonial times, many Americans-called abolitionists-had demanded an end to slavery. By the early 1800's, every Northern state had outlawed slavery. But the plantation system had spread throughout the South, and the economy of the Southern States depended more and more on slaves as a source of cheap labor.

The question of whether to outlaw or allow slavery became an important political and social issue in the early 1800's. Through the years, a balance between the number of free states (states where slavery was prohibited) and slave states (those where it was allowed) had been sought. This meant that both sides would have an equal number of representatives in the United States Senate. As of 1819, the federal government had achieved a balance between free states and slave states. There were 11 of each.

When the Territory of Missouri applied for admission to the Union in 1818, bitter controversy broke out over whether to admit it as a free or slave state. In either case, the balance between free and slave states would be upset. But in 1820, the nation's leaders worked out the Missouri Compromise, which temporarily maintained the balance. Massachusetts agreed to give up the northern part of its territory. This area became the state of Maine, and entered the Union as a free state in 1820. In 1821, Missouri entered as a slave state, and so there were 12 free and 12 slave states.

The Missouri Compromise had another important provision. It provided that slavery would be "forever prohibited" in all the territory gained from the Louisiana Purchase north of Missouri's southern border, except for Missouri itself. See MISSOURI COMPROMISE.

The Missouri Compromise satisfied many Americans as an answer to the slavery question. But large numbers of people still called for complete abolition. In 1821, Benjamin Lundy, a Quaker, pleaded for gradual abolition in a journal called The Genius of Universal Emancipation. William Lloyd Garrison, a fiery New England journalist, opposed even gradual abolition. Garrison demanded an immediate end to slavery. He founded The Liberator, an important abolitionist journal, in 1831. Many blacks who had gained their freedom became important speakers for the abolition movement. They included Frederick Douglass and Sojourner Truth. See ABOLITION MOVEMENT.

The growing strength of the abolition movement raised fears among Southerners that the federal government would outlaw slavery. Increasingly, the South hardened its defense of slavery. Southerners had always argued that slavery was necessary to the plantation economy. But after 1830, some Southern leaders began arguing that blacks were inferior to whites, and therefore fit for their role as slaves. Even many Southern whites who owned no slaves took comfort in the belief that they were superior to blacks. As a result, Southern support of slavery increased.

Debate and compromise

The long dispute between the North and South over the issue of slavery came to a head after the Mexican War ended in 1848. The vast new area the United States had acquired in the West during the 1840's created a problem Americans could not evade. It was obvious that the new land would sooner or later be split up into territories, and then into states. Proslavery Americans-chiefly Southerners-argued against any restraints on slavery in the new territories and states. Antislavery Americans-mainly Northerners-wanted the federal government to outlaw slavery in the newly acquired lands. Still others proposed the doctrine of popular sovereignty. That is, they said the people of the territories and states should decide for themselves whether or not to allow slavery.

At first, the sides tried to settle their differences through debate and compromise. But the dispute over slavery proved to be an "irrepressible conflict," as Senator William H. Seward of New York termed it. During the 1850's, the North and South drew further and further apart over the issue. In the early 1860's, 11 Southern states seceded from the Union. The North insisted that the South had no right to secede and that the Union must be preserved at all costs. On April 12, 1861, the Civil War broke out between the North and South. In this tragic chapter of United States history, Americans faced Americans in bloody battle. The Civil War took more American lives than any other war. It left large parts of the South in ruins, and created long-lasting feelings of bitterness and division between the people of the North and South.

The North won the Civil War in 1865. The North's victory preserved the Union. And, soon after the war, slavery was outlawed throughout the United States.



California applied for statehood in 1849. The application triggered debate over whether California should be admitted as a free state or a slave state. It also heightened the long-standing argument over how to deal with the slavery question.

Congressional views. Members of Congress became spokesmen for the various views about slavery. Calhoun, then a senator from South Carolina, expressed the views of Americans who believed in the right to own slaves. Senator Seward was one of many spokesmen for people with strong antislavery beliefs. He said moral law-a higher law than the Constitution-required that the government abolish slavery nationwide. Senator Clay of Kentucky represented Americans who held views between those of Calhoun and Seward. Clay urged the North and South to compromise because-he said-the alternative was the end of the Union.

The Compromise of 1850. Clay and others succeeded in bringing about agreement on the California slavery question. They won approval of the Compromise of 1850, a series of laws that made concessions to both the North and South. Measures designed to satisfy the North included the admission of California to the Union as a free state and the abolition of the slave trade in Washington, D.C. As part of the Compromise, Congress created the territories of New Mexico and Utah. To try to satisfy Southerners, Congress ruled that when these territories became states, the residents would decide whether or not to allow slavery. Also for the South, Congress agreed to strict measures designed to aid the capture of runaway slaves.

Many Americans thought the Compromise of 1850 provided a final solution to the slavery problem. The Compromise did cool the heated argument over the issue-but only for a while. See COMPROMISE OF 1850.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act. In the early 1850's, Congress began considering the creation of new territories in the area roughly between Missouri and present-day Idaho. Bitter debate flared up over whether the territories should ban or allow slavery. Those who called for a ban cited the Missouri Compromise to back their position. The land under consideration was part of the area in which the Compromise had "forever prohibited" slavery. But on May 25, 1854, Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act, a law that changed this provision. The law created two territories west of Missouri-Kansas and Nebraska. It provided that the people of Kansas and Nebraska would decide whether or not to allow slavery. See KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT.

Nationwide turmoil

Few, if any, American laws have had more far-reaching effects than the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Furious antislavery Americans denounced both Northerners and Southerners who had supported the act. Others staunchly defended the act. Everywhere, attitudes toward the slavery question hardened, and capacity for further compromise diminished. Political and social turmoil swept through the country, and the United States was on the road to war.

Political and institutional splits. Angered by the Kansas-Nebraska Act, a group of antislavery Americans formed the Republican Party in 1854. Many Democrats and Whigs who opposed slavery left their parties and became Republicans. Other Americans, puzzled by the national turmoil, sought simple answers to the country's problems. They joined the Know-Nothing (or American) Party, which blamed the problems on immigrants and Roman Catholics.

The stability of the two main political parties before 1854 had helped keep the nation together. Thus, the political splits deprived the country of an important unifying force. Religious denominations had also been a unifying force. But beginning in the 1840's, large church groups split along sectional lines and another unifying institution was lost. By the mid-1850's, the Supreme Court seemed to be the only institution to command nationwide respect. But in 1857, the court ruled-in the Dred Scott Decision-that blacks were not citizens and that laws limiting the spread of slavery were unconstitutional. The court then lost much of its influence in the North. See DRED SCOTT DECISION.

Social disorder. After 1854, Southerners increasingly referred to themselves as a separate national group. In the North, abolitionists stepped up their campaign against slavery. Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1851-1852) became one of the most widely read books in America. This powerful work about the horrors of slavery helped stir antislavery feelings to a fever pitch. In Kansas, fierce fighting broke out in 1856 between proslavery and antislavery settlers. See UNCLE TOM'S CABIN; KANSAS ("Bleeding Kansas").

On Oct. 17, 1859, abolitionist John Brown and a small band of followers seized the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia). Brown intended the action as the first step in a general slave uprising. But federal troops easily captured him, and-after a trial-he was hanged. Brown's plan had almost no chance of success. The odds against him were so great that many people believe he was insane at the time of the Harpers Ferry incident. Even so, many Northerners thought of him as a martyr, while many Southerners genuinely believed his attack was part of an organized movement to end slavery. These attitudes perhaps best show how divided the United States had become in the 1850's.

The election of 1860 also reflected the nation's division. The Democratic Party split into Northern and Southern wings, with each wing slating its own candidate for president. The Whig Party, weakened by desertions, disbanded before the election. Conservative Whigs and Know-Nothings formed the Constitutional Union Party, which ran its own candidate for president. Only the Republicans remained united. They nominated Abraham Lincoln, an Illinois lawyer, for president. The Republican unity helped Lincoln win the election on Nov. 6, 1860.

Secession. Lincoln had earned a reputation as an opponent of slavery, and his election was unacceptable to the South. Southerners feared the new president would restrict or end slavery. Alarmed by this prospect, South Carolina seceded from the Union on Dec. 20, 1860, well before Lincoln took office. Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Mississippi seceded in January 1861. The six seceded states formed the Confederate States of America in February. Later in 1861, Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia seceded and joined the Confederacy.

Lincoln took office on March 4, 1861. The new president insisted above all else on the preservation of the Union. To him, the seceded states were still part of the United States, and there was yet hope for reconciliation. But a little more than a month later, the North and South were at war.

The Civil War and Reconstruction

The Civil War began on April 12, 1861, when Southern troops fired on Fort Sumter, a military post in Charleston Harbor. Both sides quickly prepared for battle after the Fort Sumter clash. The North had superior financial and industrial strength, and a larger population than the South. But the South fought valiantly to defend its cause. The South gained the upper hand at first, but the North gradually turned the tide. Finally, Confederate resistance wore down, and Union armies swept through the South. On April 9, 1865, General Robert E. Lee-the commander of the Confederate Army-surrendered to the Union commander General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House in Virginia. The last Confederate troops surrendered on May 26.

The four years of bloody fighting between the North and South had staggering effects on the nation. About 360,000 Union troops and perhaps 260,000 Confederate troops-all Americans-died in the conflict. No other war in history has taken so many American lives. Property damage was enormous, especially in the South. Many Southern cities, towns, plantations, factories, and railroads lay in ruin. The war also took an emotional toll on the nation. It caused deep and long-lasting feelings of bitterness and division between the people of the North and the South.

For a detailed account of the war, see CIVIL WAR.

The Emancipation Proclamation. At the start of the Civil War, Lincoln's main goal was to preserve the Union. But as battlefield casualties mounted, he decided that another goal-the emancipation of the slaves-was necessary to justify the cost of the war. On Jan. 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. The proclamation declared freedom for slaves in all areas of the Confederacy that were still in rebellion against the Union. See EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION.

Reconstruction. Toward the end of the Civil War, the North set out to establish terms under which Confederate States would be readmitted to the Union. The process through which the South returned, as well as the period following the war, is called Reconstruction.

Northerners divided into two groups over Reconstruction policy. One group, called the moderates, wanted to end the bitterness between the North and South and favored avoiding harsh treatment of the rebels. Members of the other group, the radicals, believed the South should be punished. They also wanted a policy that would ensure that blacks received better treatment in the South than they had before the war.

President Lincoln might have worked out a compromise. But assassin John Wilkes Booth shot him on April 14, 1865. Lincoln died the next day, less than a week after Lee's surrender. Vice President Andrew Johnson became president. He tried to carry out Lincoln's policy, but he was unable to overcome radical opposition. The radicals included many of the most powerful Republicans in Congress. They controlled enough votes in Congress to pass their own Reconstruction policy and override Johnson's vetoes. Johnson's opposition to the radicals almost led to his removal from office. In 1868, the House of Representatives impeached him. But the Senate voted against removing him from office by the margin of a single vote. For details, see JOHNSON, ANDREW.

The Reconstruction program drafted by Congress included laws to further the rights of blacks. The 13th Amendment to the Constitution (1865) outlawed slavery throughout the United States. The 14th Amendment (1868) confirmed the citizenship of blacks, and the 15th Amendment (1870) made it illegal to deny the right to vote on the basis of race.

Congress also stationed troops in the South. Republicans, protected by the troops, took control of local Southern governments. White Southerners loyal to their old traditions bitterly resented the new political system. Many of them joined the Ku Klux Klan, a secret society that used violence to keep blacks from voting and trying to achieve equality (see KU KLUX KLAN).

Congress insisted that the Confederate States agree to follow all federal laws before being readmitted to the Union. Between 1866 and 1870, all the Confederate States returned to the Union. By the early 1870's, interest in Reconstruction in the North had faded. However, Reconstruction did not end until 1877, when the last federal troops left the South.

Reconstruction had limited success. It expanded the legal rights of blacks and set up public school systems. But the old social order, based on white supremacy, soon returned to the South. The fundamental problem of the black's place in society remained to haunt future generations. See RECONSTRUCTION.

The rise of big business

The industrial growth that began in the United States in the early 1800's continued steadily up to and through the Civil War. Still, by the end of the war, the typical American industry was small. Hand labor remained widespread, limiting the production capacity of industry. Most businesses served a small market and lacked the capital needed for business expansion.

After the Civil War, however, American industry changed dramatically. Machines replaced hand labor as the main means of manufacturing, increasing the production capacity of industry tremendously. A new nationwide network of railroads distributed goods far and wide. Inventors developed new products the public wanted, and businesses made the products in large quantities. Investors and bankers supplied the huge amounts of money that business leaders needed to expand their operations. Many big businesses grew up as a result of these and other developments. They included coal mining, petroleum, and railroad companies; and manufacturers and sellers of such products as steel, industrial machinery, automobiles, and clothing.

The industrial growth had major effects on American life. The new business activity centered in cities. As a result, people moved to cities in record numbers, and the cities grew by leaps and bounds. Many Americans amassed huge fortunes from the business boom, but others lived in extreme poverty. The sharp contrast between the rich and the poor and other features of American life stirred widespread discontent. The discontent triggered new reform movements, which-among other things-led to measures to aid the poor and control the size and power of big business.

The industrial growth centered chiefly in the North. The war-torn South lagged behind the rest of the country economically. In the West, frontier life was ending.

America's role in foreign affairs also changed during the late 1800's and early 1900's. The country built up its military strength and became a world power.



The value of goods produced by American industry increased almost tenfold between 1870 and 1916. Many interrelated developments contributed to this growth.

Improved production methods. The use of machines in manufacturing spread throughout American industry after the Civil War. With machines, workers could produce goods many times faster than they could by hand. The new large manufacturing firms hired hundreds, or even thousands, of workers. Each worker was assigned a specific job in the production process. This system of organizing laborers, called the division of labor, also sped up production. The increased production speed had a tremendous impact on the economy. It enabled businesses to charge lower prices for products. Lower prices, in turn, meant more people could afford the products, and so sales soared.

Development of new products. Inventors created, and business leaders produced and sold, a variety of new products. The products included the typewriter (1867), barbed wire (1874), the telephone (1876), the phonograph (1877), the electric light (1879), and the gasoline automobile (1885). Of these, the automobile had the greatest impact on the nation's economy. In the early 1900's, Ransom Eli Olds and Henry Ford began turning out cars by mass production. Automobile prices dropped, and sales soared. The number of automobiles owned by Americans jumped from 8,000 in 1900 to almost 3,500,000 in 1916.

Natural resources. America's rich and varied natural resources played a key role in the rise of big business. The nation's abundant water supply helped power the industrial machines. Forests provided lumber for construction and wooden products. Miners took large quantities of coal and iron ore from the ground. Andrew Carnegie and other business leaders made steel from these minerals. Steel played a vital role in the industrialization process. It was used to build machines, railroad tracks, bridges, automobiles, and skyscrapers. Other industrially valuable minerals included copper, silver, and petroleum. Petroleum-the source of gasoline-became especially important after the automobile came into widespread use in the early 1900's.

A growing population. More than 25 million immigrants entered the United States between 1870 and 1916. Immigration plus natural growth caused the U.S. population to more than double during the same period, rising from about 40 million to about 100 million. Population growth helped the economic boom in two ways. It increased the number of consumers, and thus enlarged the market for products. It also provided the additional workers needed for the jobs created by the new business activity.

Distribution, sales, and communication. In the late 1800's, the American railroad system became a nationwide transportation network. The distance of all railroad lines in operation in the United States soared from about 9,000 miles (14,500 kilometers) in 1850 to almost 200,000 miles (320,000 kilometers) in 1900. A high point in railroad development came in 1869, when workers laid tracks that joined the Central Pacific and Union Pacific railroads near Ogden, Utah. This event marked the completion of the world's first transcontinental railroad system. The system linked the United States by rail from coast to coast.

The new railroads spurred economic growth. Mining companies used them to ship raw materials to factories over long distances quickly. Manufacturers distributed their finished products by rail to points throughout the country. The railroads became highly profitable businesses for their owners, including Cornelius Vanderbilt and Jay Gould.

Improved sales methods also aided economic growth. Owners of big businesses sent salespeople to all parts of the country to promote their products. Enterprising merchants opened huge department stores in the growing cities. They included Marshall Field of Chicago, R. H. Macy of New York, and John Wanamaker of Philadelphia. The stores offered a wide variety of products at reasonable prices. Other merchants-including Montgomery Ward and Richard Sears-began mail-order companies, chiefly to serve people who lived far from stores. The companies published catalogs that showed their products. Buyers used the catalogs to order goods by mail.

Advances in communication provided a boost for the economy. Railroads replaced such mail-delivery systems as the stagecoach. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone. These developments, along with the telegraph, provided the quick communication that is vital to the smooth operation of big business.

Investment and banking. The business boom triggered a sharp increase in investments in the stocks and bonds of corporations. As businesses prospered, persons eager to share in the profits invested heavily. Their investments provided capital that companies needed to expand their operations.

New banks sprang up throughout the country. Banks helped finance the nation's economic growth by making loans to businesses. Some bankers of the era, especially J. P. Morgan, assumed key positions in the American economy because of their ability to provide huge sums of capital.

Monopolies. The government did little to regulate business during the 1800's. Unrestricted, business executives in the United States struggled to wipe out competition and gain complete control of their industries. They formed monopolies, which-for the most part-are illegal today. Some business owners in the same industry merged (united to form a single company) in order to reduce or eliminate competition. Other business leaders formed trusts. A trust was a monopoly in which a group of managers controlled rival businesses without formal ownership of the businesses (see MONOPOLY AND COMPETITION; ANTITRUST LAWS).

The monopolies had some favorable effects on the economy. They helped make possible the giant, efficient corporations that contributed so much to economic growth. The monopolies also enabled businesses to avoid sharp fluctuations in price and output, and thus keep sales steady. On the other hand, monopolies gave some business leaders so much power that they could take unfair advantage of others. A business executive with little or no competition could demand goods from suppliers at low cost, while charging high prices for the finished product. The executive could also save money by reducing a product's quality.

The South and the West

The war-torn South. After the Civil War, Americans in the South faced the task of rebuilding their war-torn society. The South lagged behind the rest of the nation economically. Some industry developed in the region, but the South remained an agricultural area throughout the period of industrialization.

Many Southern farmers-both black and white-owned the land they worked. But in general, the land of these small, independent farmers was poor. The best land was given over to tenant farming-a system in which laborers farm the land and pay rent in money or crops to the owner. The tenant farming system had neither the virtues of the plantation system of pre-Civil War days nor of the independent owner system. The tenant farmers lacked the incentive to improve land that was not their own, and the owners did not have full control over production. For these and other reasons, agriculture remained more backward in the South than elsewhere.

The end of the Western frontier. The long process of settling the United States from coast to coast drew to a close after the Civil War. In 1862, Congress passed the Homestead Act, which offered public land to people free or at very low cost. Thousands of Americans and immigrants started farms in the West under the provisions of the act. They settled chiefly on the Great Plains, which-contrary to earlier beliefs-included much excellent farmland. Miners flocked to the West as the demand for minerals soared. Towns sprang up near the mines. Cattle ranching spread throughout the Southwest after the Civil War.

After 1870, settlement became so widespread in the West that it was no longer possible to draw a continuous frontier line. The U.S. Census of 1890 officially recognized the fact that America's frontier had ended. See WESTWARD MOVEMENT IN AMERICA (Settling the Great Plains); WESTERN FRONTIER LIFE IN AMERICA.

The settlement of the West brought an end to the American Indian way of life. Farmers occupied and fenced in much of the land. White people moving westward slaughtered buffalo herds on which Indians depended for survival. Some Indians retaliated against the whites by attacking wagon trains and homes. But as in earlier days, the federal government sent soldiers to crush the Indian uprisings. In the end, the Indians were no match for the soldiers and their superior weapons. Through the years, the federal government pushed more and more Indians onto reservations. Reservation Indians suffered from poverty and illness, and could not adjust to the new way of life forced upon them. By 1900, the separate Indian way of life had become a thing of the past. For more details, see INDIAN, AMERICAN (The destruction of Indian America); INDIAN RESERVATION; INDIAN TERRITORY; INDIAN WARS.

Life during the industrial era

The industrial boom had major effects on the lives of the American people. The availability of jobs in industries drew people from farms to cities in record numbers. In 1870, only about 25 per cent of the American people lived in urban areas. By 1916, the figure had reached almost 50 per cent.

The lives of people in the cities contrasted sharply. A small percentage of them had enormous wealth and enjoyed lives of luxury. Below them economically, the larger middle class lived comfortably. But at the bottom of the economic ladder, a huge mass of city people lived in extreme poverty.

The wealthy. The business boom opened up many opportunities for financial gain. The economic activity it generated enabled many people to establish successful businesses, expand existing ones, and profit from investments. Some business leaders and investors were able to amass huge fortunes. The number of millionaires in the United States grew from perhaps about 20 in 1850 to more than 3,000 in 1900. Among the millionaires was a small group who accumulated fortunes of more than $100 million each. They included Andrew Carnegie, Marshall Field, J. P. Morgan, John D. Rockefeller, and Cornelius Vanderbilt. The wealthy Americans built enormous mansions, wore the finest clothing, ate in the best restaurants, and could afford to buy almost anything they desired.

The middle class. Other city people prospered enough to live lives of comfort, if not wealth. They included owners of small businesses, and such workers as factory and office managers. They became part of America's growing middle class.

The underprivileged. The laborers who toiled in factories, mills, and mines did not share in the benefits of the economic growth. They usually worked at least 60 hours a week for an average pay of about 20 cents an hour, and had no fringe benefits.

As the nation's population grew, so did the competition for jobs. The supply of workers outstripped the demand. Business leaders felt little pressure to improve the lot of workers. They knew that job competition meant poor people would work under almost any conditions. The oversupply of workers led to high unemployment. In addition, depressions slowed the nation's economy to a near standstill in 1873, 1884, 1893, and 1907. Unemployment soared during these depressions. Workers suffered through the periods of idleness without the unemployment benefits that are available today. Such economic hardship meant that, in many cases, every family member except very young children had to seek a job.

The everyday life of the city poor was dismal and drab. The poor lived crowded together in slums. Much of their housing consisted of cheap apartment buildings called tenements. The crowded slum neighborhoods bred crime. Overwork, poor sanitation, and inadequate diet left slum dwellers vulnerable to disease. Many poor children received little or no education, because they had to work to contribute to their families' welfare. In addition, schools in the slums were poorly equipped for educating those who attended them.

In spite of harsh living conditions, hope made the lives of many of the poor tolerable. The poor knew that economic advancement was possible in the United States. Some families, through hard work and saving, were able to start small businesses. And--even if some workers themselves could not advance economically-they believed that in America their children would.

The farmers. American farmers also suffered hardships after the Civil War. Advances in agricultural equipment and techniques had enabled most of the farmers to increase their production. However, middlemen between the farmers and the consumers took a large share of the money earned from farm products. The middlemen included owners of railroads, grain elevators, mills, and gins.

The Gilded Age. American author Mark Twain called the era of industrialization "The Gilded Age." Twain used this term to describe the culture of the newly rich of the period. Lacking tradition, the wealthy developed a showy culture supposedly based on the culture of upper-class Europeans. The enormous mansions of the newly rich Americans imitated European palaces. The wealthy filled the mansions with European art works, antiques, rare books, and gaudy decorations. They spent their leisure time attending operas, relaxing at luxurious resorts, or engaging in other functions they believed were signs of refinement.

Most Americans, however, had a far different idea of culture. They enjoyed fairs that exhibited industrial machines, the latest inventions, and other items related to America's material progress. The fairs included the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of 1876 and the Chicago World's Columbian Exposition of 1893. The American people were eager spectators at circuses, vaudeville shows, and sporting events. Baseball became so popular after 1900 that it was called the national pastime. Also after 1900, a new kind of entertainment, the motion picture, began attracting public interest. Many Americans of the industrial era enjoyed playing popular songs from sheet music on parlor pianos, or, after 1877, from records on crude phonographs. The people liked magazines filled with pictures, and dime novels-inexpensive books that emphasized adventure and the value of hard work and courage.

Government and the people. After the Civil War, the Democratic and Republican parties developed strong political machines. Members of these organizations kept in contact with the people, and did them favors in return for votes. But in general, political and government leaders strongly favored business interests. They did little to interfere with business or to close the gap between the rich and poor.

Government of the era was also marked by widespread corruption. Ulysses S. Grant became president in 1869. Members of Grant's used their government positions for their own financial gain (see GRANT, ULYSSES S. (Government frauds)). Corruption also flourished in state and local government. The people seemed little concerned, however. For example, in 1872, Grant won a second term and received more votes than he did the first time.

Reform

A strong spirit of reform swept through the United States during the late 1800's and early 1900's. Many Americans called for changes in the country's economic, political, and social systems. They wanted to reduce poverty, improve the living conditions of the poor, and regulate big business. They worked to end corruption in government, make government more responsive to the people, and accomplish other goals.

During the 1870's and 1880's, the reformers made relatively little progress. But after 1890, they gained much public support and influence in government. By 1917, the reformers had brought about many changes. Some reformers called themselves progressives. As a result, the period of American history from about 1890 to about 1917 is often called the Progressive Era.

Early reform efforts included movements to organize laborers and farmers. In 1886, skilled laborers formed the American Federation of Labor (AFL)-now the American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO). Led by Samuel Gompers, this union bargained with employers and gained better wages and working conditions for its members. Farmers founded the National Grange in 1867 and Farmers' Alliances during the 1870's and 1880's. These groups helped force railroads to lower their charges for hauling farm products and assisted the farmers in other ways.

Unskilled laborers had less success in organizing than did skilled laborers and farmers. The Knights of Labor, a union open to both the unskilled and skilled workers, gained a large membership during the 1880's. But its membership declined sharply after the Haymarket Riot of 1886. In this incident, someone threw a bomb during a meeting of workers in Haymarket Square in Chicago, and a riot erupted. At least seven police officers and one civilian died. Many Americans blamed the disaster on the labor movement. The Haymarket Riot aroused antilabor feelings and temporarily weakened the cause of unskilled workers.

The drive for woman suffrage became strong after the Civil War. In 1869, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton founded the National Woman Suffrage Association. The Territory of Wyoming gave women the right to vote the same year. Soon, a few states allowed women to vote, but only in local elections.

Early reformers brought about some changes in government. In 1883, their efforts led to passage of the Pendleton, or Civil Service, Act. This federal law set up the Civil Service Commission, an agency charged with granting federal government jobs on the basis of merit, rather than as political favors. The commission was the first federal government regulatory agency in the nation's history. In 1884, Democrats and liberal Republicans joined together to elect Grover Cleveland president. A reform-minded Democrat, Cleveland did much to enforce the Pendleton Act.

The Progressive Era. The outcry for reform increased sharply after 1890. Members of the clergy, social workers, and others studied life in the slums and reported on the awful living conditions there. Educators criticized the nation's school system. A group of writers-called muckrakers by their critics-published exposes about such evils as corruption in government and how some businesses cheated the public. The writers included Upton Sinclair, Lincoln Steffens, and Ida M. Tarbell. Increasingly, unskilled workers resorted to strikes in an attempt to gain concessions from their employers. Often, violence broke out between strikers and strikebreakers hired by the employers. Socialists and others who opposed the U.S. economic system of capitalism supported the strikers and gained a large following.

These and other developments caused many middle-class and some upper-class Americans to back reforms. The people wondered about the justice of a society that tolerated such extremes of poverty and wealth. More and more, the power of big business, corruption in government, violent strikes, and the inroads of socialism seemed to threaten American democracy.

As public support for reform grew, so did the political influence of the reformers. In 1892, farmers and some laborers formed the People's, or Populist, Party. The Populists called for government action to help farmers and laborers. They gained a large following, and convinced many Democrats and Republicans to support reforms. See POPULISM.

Reformers won control of many city and some state governments. They also elected many people to Congress who favored their views. In addition, the first three presidents elected after 1900-Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson-supported certain reform laws. These political developments resulted in a flood of reform legislation on the local, state, and federal levels.

Local and state legislation. Reformers in local and state government passed many laws to help the poor. Such laws provided for tenement house inspection, playgrounds, and other improvements of life in the slums. Some reform governments expanded public education and forced employers to protect workers against fires and dangerous machinery in factories. The many reformers in local and state government included mayors Samuel M. "Golden Rule" Jones of Toledo, Ohio, and Tom L. Johnson of Cleveland; and governors Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey and Robert M. "Battling Bob" La Follette of Wisconsin. Wisconsin went so far as to pass an income tax, a measure bitterly opposed by the wealthy Americans.

Federal legislation. In 1890, the federal government passed the Sherman Antitrust Act. This act outlawed trusts and other monopolies that hindered free trade. But the government did little to control monopolies until after Theodore Roosevelt became president in 1901. Roosevelt was a liberal Republican who called for a "square deal" for all Americans. He won lasting fame as a "trust buster." Roosevelt did not oppose monopolies altogether, but he believed they should be regulated whenever they operated against the public interest. In 1903, Roosevelt established the Bureau of Corporations, an agency that collected information on businesses. When the bureau found that a business was violating the Sherman Antitrust Act, the government sued. During Roosevelt's presidency, the government brought suits against more than 40 companies. The most famous suit broke up John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company in 1911.

Roosevelt became the first president to aid laborers in a strike against employers. In 1902, the United Mine Workers struck for better wages and working conditions. Roosevelt asked the miners and the mine owners to settle their differences through arbitration, but the mine owners refused. Angered, the president threatened to have the Army take over the mines. The owners gave in, and reached a compromise with the miners.

In 1906, Upton Sinclair published The Jungle, a novel about unsanitary conditions in the meat-packing industry. Roosevelt ordered an investigation of Sinclair's charges, and found they were true. At Roosevelt's urging, Congress passed the Meat Inspection Act and the federal Food and Drugs Act to regulate food and drug processing.

Republican William Howard Taft succeeded Roosevelt in 1909. Although a conservative, Taft helped further the cause of reform. He brought twice as many suits against businesses as Roosevelt did. He also extended civil service and called for a federal income tax.

In 1912, conservative Republicans backed Taft for their party's presidential nomination, and liberal Republicans supported Roosevelt. Taft won the nomination. The liberals then formed the Progressive, or "Bull Moose," Party and nominated Roosevelt for president. The Republican split enabled reform Democrat Woodrow Wilson to win the presidency. The Democrats also gained control of Congress.

The reform movement flourished under Wilson. Two amendments to the Constitution proposed during Taft's were ratified in 1913. The 16th Amendment gave the federal government the power to levy an income tax. The 17th Amendment provided for the election of U.S. senators by the people, rather than by state legislatures. The Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 struck a blow against monopolies. It prohibited corporations from grouping together under interlocking boards of directors. It also helped labor by making it impossible to prosecute unions under antitrust laws. In 1914, the government set up the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to handle complaints about unfair business practices. The many other reform measures passed during Wilson's presidency included the Underwood Tariff Act of 1913, which lowered a high tariff that protected American business from foreign competition.

For more details on this era of reform in the United States, see PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT.

Foreign affairs

During the 1870's and 1880's, the United States paid relatively little attention to foreign affairs. In comparison to such European nations as France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, the United States was weak militarily and had little influence in international politics. Among Europeans, American diplomats had the reputation of being bumbling amateurs. German leader Otto von Bismarck summed up the European attitude toward America. He said, "A special Providence takes care of fools, drunkards, and the United States." During the 1890's and early 1900's, however, the United States developed into a world power and took a leading role in international affairs.

The Spanish-American War of 1898 marked a turning point in United States foreign policy. Spain ruled Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and other overseas possessions during the 1890's. In the mid-1890's, Cubans revolted against their Spanish rulers. Many Americans demanded that the United States aid the rebels. On Feb. 15, 1898, the United States battleship Maine blew up off the coast of Havana, Cuba. No one was certain what caused the explosion, but many Americans blamed the Spaniards. Demands for action against Spain grew, and "Remember the Maine" became a nationwide war cry. On April 25, 1898, at the request of President William McKinley, Congress declared war on Spain. The United States quickly defeated Spain, and the Treaty of Paris of Dec. 10, 1898, officially ended the war. Under the treaty, the United States received Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines from Spain. Also in 1898, the United States annexed Hawaii. See SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR; HAWAII (History).

A world power. Roosevelt succeeded McKinley as president in 1901. He expressed his foreign policy strategy with the slogan, "Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick." Roosevelt meant that the country must back up its diplomatic efforts with military strength.

The United States built up its armed forces under Roosevelt. In 1902, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Italy blockaded Venezuela in an attempt to collect debts from that South American nation. Citing the Monroe Doctrine, Roosevelt forced the Europeans to withdraw. In 1903, the president used a threat of force to gain the right to dig the Panama Canal (see PANAMA CANAL (History)). America took over the finances of the Dominican Republic in 1905 to keep that country stable and free from European intervention. In 1916, during Wilson's , American troops occupied the Dominican Republic to keep order there. These and other actions showed that the United States had emerged as a world power.

War clouds in Europe. In 1914, long-standing problems among European nations led to the outbreak of World War I. In this fierce, destructive struggle, the Central Powers (Germany and a few other nations) lined up against the Allies (France, Italy, Russia, the United Kingdom, and many smaller countries). Before long, events would drag the United States into the war and test its new role as a world power.

World War I and the peace

The United States stayed out of World War I until 1917. But then, German acts of aggression convinced President Wilson and most other Americans of the need to join the war against Germany in order to make the world "safe for democracy." For the first time in its history, the United States mobilized for a full-scale war on foreign territory. About 2 million American fighting men soon crossed the Atlantic in troopships. The doughboys, as the troops were called, played an important role in the Allied victory in 1918.

The decade following World War I brought sweeping changes to American life. The economy entered a period of spectacular-though uneven-growth. Spurred on by the good times and a desire to be "modern," large numbers of Americans adopted new attitudes and lifestyles. The booming economy and fast-paced life of the decade gave it the nickname of the Roaring Twenties. But the good times ended abruptly. In 1929, a stock market crash triggered the worst and longest depression in America's history.



The United States in the war. After World War I began in 1914, the United States repeatedly stated its position of neutrality. But increasingly, German acts of aggression brought America closer to joining the Allies. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine sank the British passenger ship Lusitania. The attack killed 1,201 people, including 128 American passengers. Wilson and other Americans bitterly protested this killing of defenseless civilians, and Germany agreed to stop such attacks.

Wilson won reelection to the presidency in November 1916, using the slogan, "He Kept Us Out of War." But three months later, German submarines began sinking American merchant ships. This and other acts of aggression led the United States to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917.

The American people rallied around their government's decision to go to war. Almost 2 million men volunteered for service, and about 3 million were drafted. The doughboys fought valiantly in the trenches, forests, and fields of France and helped the battered Allies turn back a major German offensive. On the home front, the spirit of patriotism grew to a fever pitch. Americans willingly let the government take near full control of the economy for the good of the war effort. The people bought billions of dollars worth of Liberty Bonds to help pay the cost of the war. Movie stars, including Charlie Chaplin and Mary Pickford, toured the country to promote bond sales. Fiery patriotic songs such as George M. Cohan's "Over There" and "You're a Grand Old Flag" gave a lift to the spirits of the doughboys and the public alike.

World War I ended in an Allied victory with the signing of an armistice on Nov. 11, 1918. For a detailed account of the conflict, see WORLD WAR I..

The peace conference and treaty. In 1919, the Allies held the Paris Peace Conference to draw up the terms of the peace with Germany. Wilson viewed the conference as an opportunity to establish lasting peace among nations. He proposed a list of terms called the Fourteen Points to be used as a guide for the peace settlement. The terms included arms reductions and settlement of disputed territorial claims (see FOURTEEN POINTS). But the other leading Allies were chiefly interested in gaining territory and war payments from Germany. They adopted the Treaty of Versailles, which ignored almost all of Wilson's proposals. The treaty stripped Germany of its armed forces and much territory, and forced it to pay high war damages.

The Treaty of Versailles did make provision for one of Wilson's proposals-an association of nations (later called the League of Nations) that would work to maintain peace. But Wilson suffered a final blow to his peace plans when the United States Senate failed to ratify the Treaty of Versailles. Thus, the Senate rejected U.S. participation in the League of Nations. See VERSAILLES, TREATY OF; LEAGUE OF NATIONS; WILSON, WOODROW (Wilson's second Administration (1917-1921)).

Life during the Roaring Twenties

In many ways, the 1920's marked the point at which the United States began developing into the modern society it is today. During and after World War I, people continued to move from farms to cities in record numbers. The 1920 United States Census reported that, for the first time, a majority of Americans lived in urban areas. By the end of the Roaring Twenties, such features of modern life as the automobile, telephone, radio, and electric washing machine had become part of millions of American households. In 1927, aviation pioneer Charles A. Lindbergh helped launch the modern air age when he made the first solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean.

The role of American women changed dramatically during the 1920's. The 19th Amendment to the Constitution, which became law on Aug. 26, 1920, gave women the right to vote in all elections. In addition, many new opportunities for education and careers opened up to women during the decade.

Modern life and social change. Developments of the 1920's broadened the experiences of millions of Americans. The mass movement to cities meant more people could enjoy such activities as movies, plays, and sporting events. Radio broadcasting began on a large scale during the 1920's. It brought news of the world and entertainment into millions of urban and rural homes. The automobile gave people a new way to get around-whether for business, or to see far-off places, or just for fun. Motion-picture theaters became part of almost every city and town during the 1920's. They became known as dream palaces because of their fancy design and the excitement and romance that motion pictures provided for the public. The new role of women also changed society. Many women who found careers outside the home began thinking of themselves more as the equal of men, and less as housewives and mothers.

Change and problems. The modern trends of the 1920's brought about problems as well as benefits. Many Americans had trouble adjusting to the impersonal, fast-paced life of cities. This disorientation led to a rise in juvenile delinquency, crime, and other antisocial behavior. The complex life in cities also tended to weaken the strong family ties that had always been part of American society. See CITY (City problems [Social problems]).

The 18th Amendment to the Constitution, called the prohibition amendment, caused unforeseen problems. It outlawed the sale of alcoholic beverages throughout the United States as of Jan. 16, 1920. Large numbers of otherwise law-abiding citizens considered prohibition a violation of their rights. They ignored the law and bought liquor provided by underworld gangs. The supplying of illegal liquor, called bootlegging, helped many gangs prosper. In addition, competition for control of the lucrative bootlegging business led to many gang wars. See PROHIBITION.

The Flaming Youth. In an effort to be modern, many young men and women of the Roaring Twenties adopted a lifestyle that earned them the nickname of the Flaming Youth. Women began wearing radically new clothing styles. Short skirts, rolled-down stockings, and short "bobbed" hair replaced the full-length dresses and long hair of earlier days. Women who wore such clothes became known as flappers. The flappers and their beaus (boyfriends) enjoyed such new thrills as speeding around in automobiles. They-along with many of their elders-often visited supposedly secret nightclubs called speakeasies. At the speakeasies, people drank bootleg liquor; listened to jazz, the latest craze in popular music; and danced the Charleston and other modern steps.

An age of heroes. Americans of the Roaring Twenties developed strong admiration for individual accomplishment. Lindbergh's transatlantic flight made him a national hero. Sports superstars of the 1920's won the public's admiration for their ability to excel within the rules of the game. The stars included Red Grange of football, Jack Dempsey of boxing, Bobby Jones of golf, Bill Tilden and Helen Wills of tennis, and-most of all-baseball's Babe Ruth. Even attitudes toward big business changed during the 1920's. Despised by many in earlier days, business leaders gained widespread admiration for their accomplishments.

The movies provided the public with daring fictional heroes, including good, strong cowboys who always defeated bad Indians or outlaws. In literature, F. Scott Fitzgerald created fictional characters whose pleasure-seeking lives won public admiration. But other authors saw little glamour in American life. For example, Sinclair Lewis won fame for novels that portrayed the "average American" as narrow-minded and dull. Ernest Hemingway scorned society's values and made heroes of the Lost Generation-people who did not fit into modern life.

Looking backward. Not all Americans saw the changes brought about during the Roaring Twenties as being desirable. Many people yearned for a return to old American traditions, a trend that was reflected in many areas of life. In politics, it led to the return of a conservative federal government. In his successful presidential campaign of 1920, Warren G. Harding used the slogan "A Return to Normalcy." To many people, returning to "normalcy" meant ending the strong role of the federal government that marked the early 1900's. It also meant isolation, a turning away from the affairs of the outside world. Isolation-a reaction to World War I-became a feature of American foreign policy during the 1920's.

In religion, the trend toward tradition led to an upsurge of revivalism (emotional religious preaching). Revival meetings were most common in rural areas, but also spread to cities. Billy Sunday, once a major-league baseball player, drew wildly enthusiastic crowds to his revivals in big cities.

The conservative Americans of the Roaring Twenties also called for a return to law and order. They denounced violations of prohibition and other crimes. However, few people seemed too bothered when, in 1923, investigators revealed widespread corruption in the Harding (see HARDING, WARREN G. (Government scandals); TEAPOT DOME).

The Ku Klux Klan had died out in the 1870's, but a new Klan gained a large following during the 1920's. The new Klan had easy answers for Americans who were troubled by modern problems. It blamed the problems on "outsiders," including blacks, Jews, Roman Catholics, foreigners, and political radicals. Both Northerners and Southerners joined the Ku Klux Klan. At its height, the organization had more than 2 million members. See KU KLUX KLAN (Early 1900's).

The economy-boom and bust

During the 1920's, the American economy soared to spectacular heights. Wartime government restrictions on business ended. Conservatives gained control of the federal government and adopted policies that aided big business. New technological developments also contributed to business growth.

But in spite of its growth and apparent strength, the economy was on shaky grounds. Only one segment of the economy-manufacturing-prospered. The distribution of wealth grew lopsided. Business executives grew rich, but farmers and laborers became worse off than before the war. Finally, in 1929, wild speculation led to a stock market crash that toppled the economy like a house of cards.

Government and business. The American people grew tired of the federal government's involvement in society that marked the Progressive Era and the war years. They elected to Congress conservatives who promised to reduce the role of government. Also, all three presidents elected during the 1920's-Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover-were Republicans who agreed with the policy.

The federal government, however, did what it could to promote American business. In 1922, the government passed the Fordney-McCumber Act, which raised tariff duties to the highest level ever in order to keep foreign goods from competing with American products. This and other measures did much to help American business flourish.

Technology enabled American manufacturers to develop new products, improve existing ones, and turn out goods much faster and more cheaply than ever before. Sales of such items as electric washing machines, refrigerators, and radios soared. But the manufacturing boom depended most heavily on the growth of the automobile industry. Before and during the 1920's, Henry Ford and others refined car manufacturing to a science. The cost of automobiles continued to drop and sales soared. In just 10 years between 1920 and 1930, the number of cars registered in the United States almost tripled, growing from about 8 million to 23 million. The thriving automobile industry triggered growth in such related industries as steel, road construction, gasoline sales, and tourism.

Agriculture and labor did not share in the prosperity. A reduced market for farm goods in war-torn Europe and a slowdown in the U.S. population growth led to a decline in the demand for American farm products. Organized labor suffered major setbacks during the 1920's. A lack of government support reduced the power of unions in their dealing with employers, and workers in many new industries remained unorganized. Widespread poverty among farmers and laborers cut into the demand for manufactured goods, a contributing factor to the upcoming depression.

Investments, speculation, and the crash. The economic growth of the 1920's led more Americans than ever to invest in the stocks of corporations. The investments, in turn, provided companies with a flood of new capital for business expansion. As investors poured money into the stock market, the value of stocks soared. The upsweep led to widespread speculation, which pushed the value of stocks far beyond the level justified by earnings and dividends. Much of the speculation involved buying stocks on margin; that is, paying a fraction of the cost and borrowing the rest.

Such unsound investment practices led to the stock market crash of 1929. In late October, a decline in stock prices set in. Panic selling followed, lowering stock prices drastically and dragging investors to financial ruin. When the year ended, the government estimated that the crash had cost investors $40 billion. The stock market crash combined with the other weaknesses in the nation's economy to bring on the Great Depression of the 1930's.

For more details on the decade of the 1920's, see ROARING TWENTIES.

The Great Depression

The United States suffered through the Great Depression that followed the stock market crash of 1929 for more than 10 years. During the depression, millions of workers lost their jobs and large numbers of farmers were forced to abandon their farms. Poverty swept through the nation on a scale never before experienced.

The Great Depression was not limited to the United States. It struck almost every other country in the world. In some countries, the hard times helped bring to power dictators who promised to restore the economy. The dictators included Adolf Hitler in Germany and a group of military leaders in Japan. Once in power, both Hitler and the Japanese rulers began conquering neighboring lands. Their actions led to World War II, the most destructive conflict in the history of humanity. The United States fought in the war from 1941 to 1945, and played a key role in defeating Germany and Japan.

Victory in World War II brought a spirit of great relief and joy to the United States. The postwar economy boomed. More people shared in the prosperity than ever before, creating a huge, well-to-do middle class. Even so, Americans still faced problems. Chief among them were the new threat of nuclear war, the growing strength of Communism, and discontent among Americans who did not share in the prosperity.



The road to ruin. The stock market crash sent shock waves through the American financial community. Banks greatly curtailed their loans to businesses, and businesses then cut back on production. Millions of people lost their jobs because of the cutbacks. Spending then dwindled, and businesses suffered even more. Factories and stores shut down, causing even higher unemployment. Consumption of farm products declined, and farmers became worse off than ever. Thousands of banks failed during the depression and foreign trade decreased sharply. By the early 1930's, the nation's economy was paralyzed.

The depression and the people. At the height of the depression in 1933, about 13 million Americans were out of work, and many others had only part-time jobs. Farm income declined so sharply that more than 750,000 farmers lost their land. The Dust Bowl, the result of a terrible drought on the western Great Plains, also wiped out many farmers (see DUST BOWL). Hundreds of thousands of people lost their life savings as a result of the bank failures.

Throughout the depression, many Americans went hungry. People stood in "bread lines" and went to "soup kitchens" to get food provided by charities. Often, two or more families lived crowded together in a small apartment. Some homeless people built shacks of tin and scraps of wood in vacant areas. They called these clumps of shacks Hoovervilles-a scornful reference to Herbert Hoover, president when the depression struck. In 1932, about 15,000 World War I veterans marched on Washington, D.C., to demand an early payment of a government bonus owed them. Hoover ordered troops to drive them out of the city.

Roosevelt, recovery, and reform. Early in the Great Depression, Hoover promised that prosperity was "just around the corner." But the depression deepened as the election of 1932 approached. The Republicans slated Hoover for reelection. The Democrats chose Franklin Delano Roosevelt. In his campaign, Roosevelt promised government action to end the Great Depression and reforms to avoid future depressions. The people responded, and Roosevelt won a landslide victory.

Roosevelt's program for recovery and reform was called the New Deal. Its many provisions included public works projects to provide jobs, relief for farmers, aid to manufacturing firms, and the regulation of banks. A solidly Democratic Congress approved almost every measure Roosevelt proposed. Many new government agencies were set up to help fight the depression. They included the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and the Works Progress Administration (WPA, later called Work Projects Administration), both of which provided jobs; the Farm Credit Administration (FCA), which extended credit to farmers; and the Social Security Board, which developed the social security system.

The New Deal helped relieve the hardship of many Americans. However, hard times dragged on until World War II military spending stimulated the economy.

Roosevelt's efforts to end the depression made him one of the most popular U.S. presidents. The voters elected him to four terms. No other president won election more than twice. Roosevelt's New Deal was a turning point in American history. It marked the start of a strong federal government role in the nation's economic affairs that has continued to the present day. See GREAT DEPRESSION; NEW DEAL.

The United States in World War II

World War II began on Sept. 1, 1939, when German troops overran Poland. The United Kingdom, France, and other countries (called the Allies) went to war against Germany. At first, America stayed out of the war. But on Dec. 7, 1941, Japanese planes bombed the U.S. military base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The United States declared war on Japan on December 8, and on Germany and Italy-Germany's chief ally-three days later.

The war effort. The American people backed the war effort with fierce dedication. About 15 million American men served in the armed forces. They ranged from teen-agers to men well over 40. About 338,000 women served in the armed forces. At home, automobile plants and other factories were converted into defense plants where airplanes, ships, weapons, and other war supplies were made. The country had a shortage of civilian men, and so thousands of women worked in the defense plants. With a combination of humor and admiration, people called the women defense workers "Rosie the Riveter." Even children took part in the war effort. Boys and girls collected used tin cans, old tires, and other "junk" that could be recycled and used for war supplies.

Allied victory. On May 7, 1945, after a long, bitter struggle, the Americans and other Allies forced the mighty German war machine to surrender. Vice President Harry S. Truman had become president upon Roosevelt's death about a month earlier. The Allies demanded Japan's surrender, but the Japanese continued to fight on. Truman then made one of the major decisions in history. He ordered the use of the atomic bomb, a weapon many times more destructive than any previous weapon. An American airplane dropped the first atomic bomb used in warfare on Hiroshima, Japan, on Aug. 6, 1945. A second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9 (see NUCLEAR WEAPON). Japan formally surrendered on September 2, and the war was over.

For more details on U.S. involvement in World War II, see WORLD WAR II.

The threat of Communism

The United States and the Soviet Union both fought on the side of the Allies during World War II. But after the war, the two countries became bitter enemies. The Soviet Union, as a Communist country, opposed democracy. It helped Communists take control of most of the countries of Eastern Europe and also aided Communists who seized control of China.

The Soviet Union and China then set out to spread Communism to other lands. The United States, as the world's most powerful democratic country, took on the role of defending non-Communist nations threatened by Communist take-over. The containment of Communism became the major goal of U.S. postwar foreign policy.

The Cold War and foreign policy. The postwar struggle between the American-led non-Communist nations and the Soviet Union and its Communist allies became known as the Cold War. The conflict was so named because it did not lead to fighting, or a "hot" war, on a major scale.

Both the United States and the Soviet Union built up arsenals of atomic bombs, more powerful hydrogen bombs, and other nuclear weapons. The nuclear weapons made each nation capable of destroying the other. The threat of nuclear war made both sides cautious. As a result, Cold War strategy emphasized threats of force, propaganda, and aid to weak nations. The United Nations (UN), founded in 1945, provided a forum where the nations could try to settle their Cold War disputes.

Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower, the first two presidents of the Cold War era, pledged American military support to any nation threatened by Communism. Also, the United States provided billions of dollars to non-Communist nations. See COLD WAR.

The Korean War resulted from the Cold War friction. On June 25, 1950, troops from Communist North Korea, equipped by the Soviet Union, invaded South Korea. The UN called on member nations to help restore peace. Truman sent American troops to aid South Korea, and the UN sent a fighting force made up of troops from many nations. The war lasted for three years, ending in a truce on July 27, 1953. See KOREAN WAR.

Communism and internal friction. The spread of Communism caused deep divisions within the United States. Conservatives blamed the Roosevelt and Truman s for allowing the Communist postwar gains. They also claimed that Communists were infiltrating the American government. The charges led to widespread investigations of-and debate over-the extent of Communist influence in American government and society. Conservatives believed the investigations were needed to save the country from Communist control. Liberals charged the conservatives with conducting "witch hunts"; that is, trying to fix guilt on people without evidence. See UN-AMERICAN ACTIVITIES COMMITTEE; HISS, ALGER; MCCARTHY, JOSEPH R.

Postwar society

After World War II, the United States entered the greatest period of economic growth in its history. Periods of inflation (rapidly rising prices) and recession (mild business slumps) occurred. But overall, businesses and people prospered. Prosperity spread to more Americans than ever before, resulting in major changes in American life. However, not all people shared in the prosperity. Millions of Americans-including a high percentage of the nation's blacks-continued to live in poverty. The existence of poverty amid prosperity brought on a period of active social protest that has continued to the present day.

Prosperity returns. Military spending during World War II drew the United States out of the Great Depression. Major industries, such as automobile manufacturing and housing construction, had all but stopped during the war. After the war, these industries resumed production on a much larger scale than ever. Relatively new industries such as electronics, plastics, frozen foods, and jet aircraft became booming businesses.

The shortage of goods during the war and other factors combined to create a vast market for American products. A population boom increased the number of consumers. Between 1950 and 1960 alone, the population of the United States grew by about 28 million. Labor unions became stronger than ever, and gained high wages and other benefits for their members. Wage laws and other government regulations also helped give workers a greater share of the profits of business. These developments also meant that more Americans had more money to spend on goods.

A new lifestyle resulted from the prosperity. After the war, millions of people needed, and were able to afford, new housing. Construction companies quickly built up huge clusters of houses in suburbs around the nation's cities. Vast numbers of Americans moved from cities to suburbs. The suburbs attracted people for many reasons. They offered newer housing, more open space, and-usually-better schools than the central cities. See SUBURB; CITY (Metropolitan cities).

A rise in automobile ownership accompanied the suburban growth. The majority of suburbanites worked in the central cities and depended on cars to get to and from work. Most suburbs lacked good local transportation systems, and so families relied on cars to go shopping or almost anywhere else. Between 1940 and 1960, the number of automobiles registered in the United States jumped from about 271/2 million to 611/2 million. By 1960, over three-fourths of all American families owned a car, and almost a fifth owned more than one.

Increased automobile traffic led to the building of a nationwide network of superhighways. The car and prosperity enabled more people than ever to take vacation trips. New motels, fast-service restaurants, and gas stations sprang up to serve the tourists.

Prosperity and technological advances changed American life in other ways. Television-an experimental device before the war-became a feature of most American homes during the 1950's. This wonder of modern science brought scenes of the world into the American living room at the flick of a switch. Fascinated, large numbers of people made TV watching one of their main leisure-time activities (see TELEVISION (History of U.S. television broadcasting)). New appliances made household work easier for American families. They included automatic washers, driers, dishwashers, and garbage disposers.

Poverty and discrimination. In spite of the general prosperity, millions of Americans still lived in poverty. The poor included members of all ethnic groups, but the plight of the nation's poor blacks seemed especially bleak. Ever since emancipation, blacks in both the North and South had faced discrimination in jobs, housing, education, and other areas. A lack of education and jobs made poverty among blacks widespread.

During the early 1900's, blacks, joined by many whites, had begun a movement to extend civil rights to blacks. The movement gained momentum after World War II. Efforts of civil rights leaders resulted in several Supreme Court decisions that attacked discrimination. In the best-known case, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), the court ruled compulsory segregation in public schools illegal.

In spite of the gains, many civil rights leaders became dissatisfied with the slow progress of their movement. In 1955, Martin Luther King, Jr., a Baptist minister, began organizing demonstrations protesting discrimination. Before long, the public protest would become a major tool of Americans seeking change.

Protests and reform movements

Events and new public attitudes brought dramatic social changes to the United States after 1960. The black civil rights movement grew in intensity. Many other groups-including American Indians, Mexican Americans, and women-also began demanding fuller rights. Protesters of all kinds staged demonstrations seeking change. Most demonstrations were conducted peacefully. But some led to violence.

The country continued to be a leader in scientific and technological advancements. It made great strides in medicine that helped reduce human suffering, and its technological skill provided the means for a new and exciting field of exploration-outer space. The period also ushered in the spread of computers and advanced communications devices to homes, schools, and businesses throughout the land. The wealth of information provided by these technological marvels gave the period the nickname the information age.



The civil rights movement. The black civil rights movement became the main domestic issue in the nation in the early 1960's. Increasingly, blacks-joined by whites-staged demonstrations to dramatize their demands for rights and equality. One of the highlights of the movement came on Aug. 28, 1963, when more than 200,000 people staged a freedom march called the March on Washington in Washington, D.C.

John F. Kennedy, who became president in 1961, urged Congress to pass legislation outlawing discrimination on the basis of race. Kennedy was killed by an assassin on Nov. 22, 1963, and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson became president. Johnson, a former U.S. senator skilled in dealing with legislators, persuaded Congress to pass many major civil rights laws.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed discrimination in employment, voter registration, and public accommodations. The Civil Rights Act of 1968 was designed to end discrimination in the sale and renting of housing. Congress, at Johnson's urging, also provided financial aid for the needy as part of a program that Johnson called the War on Poverty. For a detailed account of the civil rights movement, see AFRICAN AMERICANS.

Urban unrest. In spite of government aid and a generally booming economy, poverty remained a major problem in America's central cities. Discontent grew among African Americans in poor, decaying neighborhoods. In the mid-1960's, blacks rioted in the ghettos of Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Los Angeles, New York City, Newark, and other cities. Many rioted again in 1968, following the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Racial tension also erupted into riots in Miami in 1980, Los Angeles in 1992, and other cities at other times.

The number of such crimes as murder, robbery, and rape soared during the 1960's, 1970's, and 1980's. The crime rate was especially high in the central cities but also increased rapidly in suburbs and elsewhere. Sociologists attributed the rising crime rate to many factors, including the weakening of the family, poverty, drug addiction, and a feeling of hopelessness and alienation.

The spreading drive for equality. The drive for equality that began with African Americans spread to other minority groups. American Indians, Mexican Americans, and others organized active movements aimed at gaining equality. In addition, large numbers of women began calling for an end to discrimination based on sex. Their activities became known as the women's rights movement. The movement helped bring about greater equality for women in employment and other areas. For more details, see HISPANIC AMERICANS; INDIAN, AMERICAN (Native Americans today); WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS (Contemporary women's movements).

Pollution and conservation. As the country's industry and population grew, so did the pollution of its environment. Smoke from factories and fumes from automobiles filled the air with dangerous gases. Wastes from factories and other sources polluted many rivers and lakes. Many Americans began demanding government action to control environmental pollution. In response, the government passed many antipollution laws.

The need to conserve energy became another pressing problem for the country. America's many industries, households, cars, and other energy users placed a drain on the nation's limited energy supply. The energy crisis was highlighted in 1973, when a fuel shortage reduced the supply of oil available for heating homes and the gasoline supply for automobiles and other vehicles.

Setbacks to American pride

United States participation in the Vietnam War (1957-1975) caused conflict both at home and abroad. Vietnam was the first foreign war in which U.S. military forces failed to achieve their goals. This failure hurt the pride of many Americans. Other setbacks to U.S. pride in the 1970's included political scandals and a hostage crisis in Iran. Despite these setbacks, most Americans maintained a deep pride in their country and gladly celebrated its bicentennial, the 200th anniversary of its founding.

The Vietnam War had begun in 1957 as a battle for control of South Vietnam between the non-Communist government and Communists. In the late 1950's and early 1960's, Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy sent military aid and advisers to support the South Vietnam government. Soon after Johnson became president, the Communists threatened to topple the government. Johnson responded to the threat by sending hundreds of thousands of American combat troops to help South Vietnam fight the Communists. By the mid-1960's, the United States was deeply involved in the Vietnam War.

Public response to the Vietnam War differed sharply from the near unanimous public support in World Wars I and II. A majority of Americans supported the war effort at first, but others bitterly opposed it. In the late 1960's, opposition to the war grew. The war critics argued that the United States had no right to interfere in Vietnamese affairs. Throughout the nation, college students and others staged antiwar demonstrations.

Johnson, discouraged by the criticism of his Vietnam policy, refused to run for reelection in 1968. The people elected Richard M. Nixon, partly because he pledged to end U.S. involvement in the war. Nixon removed the last U.S. ground forces from Vietnam in 1973. Two years later, South Vietnam fell to the Communists.

For fuller details on the conflict, see VIETNAM WAR.

Political scandals dismayed many Americans and damaged public regard for the country's highest leaders. In 1973, Spiro T. Agnew, Nixon's vice president, came under criminal investigation. A federal grand jury began hearing charges that he participated in widespread graft in Maryland. Agnew resigned from the vice presidency on Oct. 10, 1973.

In 1972, campaign workers for President Nixon's reelection committed a burglary at the Democratic political headquarters in the Watergate building complex in Washington, D.C. Nixon was later charged with covering up the burglary and with other illegal activities. In July 1974, the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives voted articles of impeachment against the president. Evidence against Nixon mounted until it became apparent that the full House of Representatives would impeach him and that the Senate would remove him from office. On Aug. 9, 1974, Nixon resigned as president. He was the only U.S. president ever to resign. For more details, see WATERGATE and NIXON, RICHARD M..

The hostage crisis. A revolution overthrew the government of the shah of Iran in February 1979. In November of that year, revolutionaries took over the United States Embassy in Tehran, Iran's capital, to protest American aid to the deposed shah. The revolutionaries held a group of U.S. diplomats as hostages and demanded that the United States return the shah to Iran for trial. The U.S. government refused to do so. The shah died in Egypt in July 1980, but the revolutionaries held the hostages until January 1981. Many people thought that the United States failed to deal effectively with the crisis, particularly after an armed rescue attempt failed in April 1980. For details, see CARTER, JIMMY (The Iranian crisis); IRAN (Revolution and the Islamic republic).

Celebrating the bicentennial. In 1976, the American people celebrated the bicentennial of the United States with great pride. The occasion was marked with parades, reenactments of related historical events, and other patriotic celebrations.

The spread of high technology

Advances in the development of computers brought about an era that is often called the information age. Early computers, called mainframes, were large machines stored in special weather-controlled rooms. These early computers had few users, chiefly large businesses and governments. Computers quickly became more compact and able to do much more than the early models could. In the 1970's, the use of computers began to soar. In 1977, the personal computer (PC) went on sale. Schools and small businesses that could not afford the big mainframes bought many of these compact machines. In addition, people throughout the country began buying PC's for home use. By the 1980's, the "computer revolution" had taken firm hold.

New methods of communication changed the way people lived and worked in the 1980's and 1990's. The first commercial cellular telephone system went into operation in 1983. Fax machines, which had been invented much earlier, became increasingly popular in business. Personal computers continued to grow smaller and more affordable. Many people used computers to exchange e-mail (electronic mail) messages.

Changes in the economy

Important changes took place within the U.S. economy. Several major industries of the early 1900's lost importance. For example, mining, steel production, and automobile manufacturing played much smaller roles in the nation's economy. In agriculture, the family farm, sharecropping, and tenant farming lost importance. These older systems were replaced by large, mechanized farms that could supply much of the world with food and other products. Service industries, those that provided services rather than agricultural products or manufactured goods, took on a larger role in the economy. A painful adjustment followed the displacement of old forms of employment. Many people who lost their jobs in mining and manufacturing found it difficult to find new ones. The growth of service and high technology industries, however, resulted in an increase in the total number of wage earners throughout this period.

Women, minority groups, and immigrants entered the work force in larger numbers than ever before. The economy continued to expand, despite recurring periods of inflation and recession.

During the 1980's and 1990's, the economy of the United States became more integrated with those of other nations. The country's economic partners included not only many European nations, as in the past, but also many Asian nations, such as Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand.

In 1989, a trade agreement between the United States and Canada began reducing trade barriers between the two countries. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which took effect in 1994, built on the 1989 pact. Under NAFTA, the United States, Canada, and Mexico gradually eliminated tariffs, import quotas, and other barriers to trade between the three countries. As a result of these changes, markets for United States goods and services continued to expand.

The easing of Cold War tensions

The containment of Communism dominated United States foreign policy from the 1960's to the 1980's. But Communist rule ended in the Soviet Union in 1991 and in Eastern European nations at about the same time, ending the prolonged struggle known as the Cold War.

The space race. The Cold War led the United States and the Soviet Union to compete with each other in developing space programs. On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin became the first person to orbit the earth. The United States quickly matched the Soviet achievement. On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan B. Shepard, Jr., soared into space from a launching pad at Cape Canaveral, Florida, becoming the first American in space. The United States and the Soviet Union then matched their technological skills in a race to land the first person on the moon. On July 20, 1969, millions of people watched on television as U.S. astronaut Neil A. Armstrong climbed down from his spacecraft and became the first person to set foot on the moon. The space race faded by the late 1970's, when the two countries began to pursue independent goals in space.

Improved U.S.-Soviet relations. President Nixon took steps to reduce tensions between the United States and the two leading Communist powers, China and the Soviet Union. In 1972, he visited these two countries.

Jimmy Carter, who became president in 1977, also tried to improve U.S. relations with China and the Soviet Union. In early 1979, the United States and China established normal diplomatic relations. Later that year, Carter and Leonid I. Brezhnev, leader of the Soviet Communist Party, signed a treaty that would limit the use of U.S. and Soviet nuclear arms.

After George H. W. Bush became president in 1989, relations continued to improve between the United States and the Soviet Union. Bush and Gorbachev met several times and worked to increase cooperation between their countries. In 1991, the two leaders signed the first Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START). The treaty required both countries to reduce the number of their long-range nuclear weapons. For more details, see STRATEGIC ARMS REDUCTION TREATY.

Breakup of the Soviet Union. Discontent in the republics that made up the Soviet Union grew in the late 1980's and early 1990's. On Dec. 25, 1991, the Soviet Union was dissolved, and its republics became independent non-Communist nations. Russia is by far the largest of the nations. During the same period, Eastern European countries that had been part of the Soviet bloc experienced changes that brought about the end of Communist rule in the countries. These events marked the end of the Cold War.

International cooperation

The Persian Gulf War of 1991. United States foreign policy after the Cold War made increasing use of coalitions of nations and of cooperation with the United Nations. One of the largest efforts of this type was the Persian Gulf War of 1991. In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait, an oil-rich Arab country between Iraq and Saudi Arabia-also Arab nations. President Bush ordered tens of thousands of U.S. troops to Saudi Arabia, largely to help defend that country against a possible Iraqi attack. Saudi Arabia was a U.S. ally and a major source of petroleum for the United States and many other industrialized nations.

Bush soon put together a coalition of nations to oppose Iraq, including Arab and Western European states. In November, the UN authorized the United States and other UN members to "use all necessary means" to expel Iraq from Kuwait if Iraq did not withdraw by Jan. 15, 1991. Iraq ignored the deadline. The United States and its coalition partners then drove the Iraqi forces out of Kuwait. For more information, see PERSIAN GULF WAR OF 1991.

The conflict over weapons inspections. Under the cease-fire agreement that ended the Persian Gulf War of 1991, Iraq agreed to destroy its facilities for producing chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons. In 1993, Iraq formally agreed to a permanent ban on such weapons and to long-term monitoring of its weapons programs by UN inspectors. However, Iraq repeatedly clashed with the UN and refused to comply with the agreements. In 1998, the United States and the United Kingdom launched air strikes against Iraqi weapons facilities.

Keeping peace in the Balkans also involved international cooperation. In 1992, a civil war broke out in Bosnia-Herzegovina between government forces dominated by Bosnian Muslims and Bosnian Serb rebels who sought to take control of most of the country. In December, representatives of the two sides signed a peace plan that included a cease-fire. Under the plan, the cease-fire was to be policed by a force of about 60,000 troops from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The United States sent about 20,000 troops to Bosnia to serve in the force.

In March 1999, NATO began air strikes against Yugoslavia. The purpose of the strikes was to halt attacks by forces of the Yugoslav republic of Serbia against ethnic Albanians in Serbia's province of Kosovo. NATO's air campaign used primarily U.S. aircraft and cruise missiles. In June 1999, Serbian military leaders agreed to withdraw forces from Kosovo. NATO stopped the bombing and then sent an international peacekeeping force to Kosovo. The United States pledged 7,000 troops for the NATO force.

The International Space Station was another example of cooperation among nations. In the 1990's, the United States, Canada, Japan, Russia, and the 12 member nations of the European Space Agency became partners in a program to build a large, permanent space station. In 1998, the United States and Russia launched the first two modules of the station, and U.S. astronauts assembled the pieces in space. In 2000, a crew of one American and two Russians moved into the space station, and construction continued. See INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION.

Impeachment. Bill Clinton took office as president in 1993. In August 1998, he admitted to having a sexual affair with Monica Lewinsky, a White House intern, from late 1995 to 1997. In December 1998, the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives recommended several articles of impeachment against the president involving attempts to conceal his affair with Lewinsky. The House then impeached Clinton on charges of perjury (lying under oath) and obstruction of justice. In February 1999, the United States Senate held a trial on the impeachment and found Clinton not guilty. For more details, see CLINTON, BILL (Domestic events).

Recent events. Texas Governor George W. Bush was elected president in 2000. He narrowly defeated his Democratic opponent, Vice President Al Gore. The outcome was in doubt for several weeks after the election. Delays resulted from recounts of the ballots in Florida and court challenges to the recounts.

On Sept. 11, 2001, the nation faced the worst attack of terrorism in U.S. history. Terrorists in hijacked commercial airplanes crashed the jets into the two 110-story towers of the World Trade Center in New York City and into the Pentagon Building near Washington, D.C. A fourth hijacked plane crashed in Pennsylvania. The twin towers collapsed to the ground, and part of the Pentagon was destroyed. About 3,000 people were killed. President Bush called the attacks acts of war. On October 7, the United States and its allies began a military campaign in Afghanistan, the headquarters of the terrorists responsible for the attacks. Targets included airports, communication facilities, and suspected terrorist camps. See SEPTEMBER 11 TERRORIST ATTACKS.

After the September 11 attacks, Bush created the federal Office of Homeland Security to improve the country's defense against future terrorist attacks. In November 2002, Congress passed legislation to replace the office with a Cabinet-level Department of Homeland Security. The new department began operations in early 2003. A number of federal agencies were transferred to the department. They included the Federal Emergency Management Agency, the Transportation Security Administration, the U.S. Coast Guard, the U.S. Customs Service, and the U.S. Secret Service.

Also in 2002, a series of corporate financial scandals severely damaged investors' confidence in U.S. businesses and U.S. stocks. For example, several corporations-including the Enron Corporation, a leading energy company, and WorldCom Inc., a global telecommunications firm-were found to have used dishonest accounting practices. In July 2002, President Bush signed into law a corporate reform bill that called for increased punishments for corporate fraud. The new legislation also established an independent board to oversee the accounting industry.

On March 20, 2003 (March 19 in the United States), a U.S.-led coalition of countries launched military action against Iraq. Bush said that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction-that is, biological, chemical, or nuclear weapons-and was a threat to the security of the United States and other countries. Bush had earlier urged the United Nations Security Council to authorize military action against Iraq if that country did not disarm. Some council members would not agree to such a resolution. Many people around the world opposed the U.S.-led attack. But Bush claimed that Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein might supply weapons to terrorist groups. British and Australian forces joined the U.S.-led war effort, and a number of other countries announced their support. In April 2003, U.S.-led forces seized Baghdad, Iraq's capital, causing the fall of Hussein's government. See PERSIAN GULF WAR OF 2003.

Contributor: Oscar Handlin, LL.D., Carl M. Loeb University Professor Emeritus, Harvard University; winner of Pulitzer Prize in History, 1952.

Questions

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